The Power of RTI and Reading Profiles

A Blueprint for Solving Reading Problems

by

Louise Spear-Swerling, Ph.D.

Southern Connecticut State University New Haven

About the Author

Louise Spear-Swerling, Ph.D., Professor, Department of Special Education, and Reading and Coordinator, Graduate Program in Learning Disabilities

Dr. Spear-Swerling’s research interests include literacy acquisition, reading difficulties, and teacher education, and she has published many peer-reviewed articles and book chapters on these topics.

The Role of Teacher Effectiveness in Children’s Reading Achievement

When I first began my career as a teacher of reading, my classroom happened to be next door to that of a veteran educator with a sterling reputation for teaching literacy.

During spare moments, operating on the theory that a good model can be worth a thousand words, I often lingered by my classroom door to observe this teacher working with her students. Happily, her reputation turned out to be well-deserved. Although I had been fortunate to have good preservice preparation in reading, over time, I learned a great deal from observing this teacher’s wonderful model— about how to teach explicitly and unambiguously, provide clear and constructive feedback, and engage and motivate children at different levels of achievement.

This chapter considers the knowledge and skills needed to be a successful teacher of reading as well as how schools of education might better prepare elementary-level educators to teach reading to children from a variety of backgrounds and with a range of instructional needs, including the kinds of students discussed in the past three chapters.

No teacher can be maximally effective without the right supports, such as an appropriate curriculum, books, and administrative leadership; furthermore, knowledgeable, well-prepared teachers certainly will not eliminate all reading problems. However, there are good reasons why many researchers and policymakers have focused on trying to improve teacher quality.

First, effective teachers matter, especially (though not only) for children with a vulnerability to reading difficulties. Moreover, unlike certain variables that may influence children’s reading progress— genetic inheritance, poverty, and many disabilities— teacher quality is relatively amenable to change through teacher preparation and professional development.

Research suggests that there is copious room for improvement in teacher preparation practices, improvement with the potential to help retain capable teachers in the profession and increase many students’ reading achievement.

Research on Effective Teachers of Reading

One recent line of research has employed a statistical measure of teacher effectiveness termed value-added, an indicator of individual teachers’ contributions to the achievement of their students. For example, Chetty and colleagues (2011) found that when a high value-added teacher started teaching students in a cohort, or when a low value-added teacher stopped teaching, student achievement in reading improved.

Conversely, achievement declined when a low value-added teacher started teaching a particular cohort of students or a high value-added teacher stopped teaching it. Similarly, the results of research indicated substantial differences among teachers in the ability to promote students’ reading and mathematics achievement and showed that teacher effects on achievement were especially large in schools serving students from low-SES backgrounds.

Moreover, findings suggest that teachers who provided more teacher-directed instruction (e.g., explicit teaching and modeling) as well as more support for student learning had students who made more reading comprehension progress during the school year, even with important confounding variables, such as students’ prior achievement, accounted for.

Teacher-directed instruction and support for student learning have often been found to be especially beneficial for at-risk students.

Teacher’s Disciplinary Knowledge about Reading

Studies have shown that teachers’ understanding of English word structure and phonics— for example, teachers’ abilities to count phonemes and morphemes in words— is crucial for effective reading instruction. Research has indicated that even experienced, credentialed teachers often have great difficulty with tasks measuring phonics knowledge or understanding of phonemic awareness.

For instance, in studies, licensed teachers have repeatedly confused phonemic awareness with knowledge of letter sounds. Furthermore, knowledge about the structure of language is not an automatic consequence of high levels of literacy, and teachers must be prepared to teach phonemic awareness and phonics skills effectively.

Preservice Teacher Preparation in Reading

A consistent finding from preservice preparation studies is that when research-based disciplinary knowledge is taught to preservice teachers or teacher candidates, they learn it. However, numerous studies suggest that many teacher preparation programs do not adequately cover the components of reading on their course syllabi.

In sum, teacher preparation in reading desperately needs a systemic approach. Effective teacher preparation practices are not systemic and depend on the skill and knowledge of individual teacher educators who teach reading methods courses and supervise reading-related field experiences.

Key Disciplinary Knowledge

Core Knowledge and Skills for All Elementary-Level Teachers of Reading

1. Knowledge about typical reading development and difficulties:

   • Explain phases and processes involved in typical reading development.
   • Describe the influence of socioeconomic, cultural, and linguistic factors on reading development.
   • Explain important abilities involved in reading comprehension.

2. Knowledge about the structure of language:

   • Segment phonemes and morphemes in words, and identify syllable types and irregular words.

3. Research foundations:

   • Explain fundamental consensus research findings about reading and their implications for educational practice.

4. Assessment:

   • Explain important concepts about the technical adequacy of tests, including reliability and validity; administer and interpret assessments for screening and evaluation outcomes.

5. Instruction:

   • Provide explicit, systematic teaching of the five components of reading.
   • Differentiate and adapt instruction for students with varied needs, including ELLs and students with disabilities.

It is essential that all prospective teachers of reading receive these essential competencies to ensure that they can effectively teach reading to their students.