Teaching Cognates/Cognados Through Picture Books

Resources for For Spanish-English Vocabulary Conn

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Resources for For Spanish-English Vocabulary Conn

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Teaching Cognates/Cognados Through Picture Books

Teaching Cognates/Cognados Through Picture Books Resources for Fostering Spanish–English Vocabulary Connections

José A. Montelongo, Ph.D.

José A. Montelongo, Ph.D. Anita Hernández, Ph.D.

Anita Hernández, Ph.D. and

Roberta J. Herter, Ph.D.

Roberta J. Herter, Ph.D.

Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.

Post Office Box 10624 Baltimore, Maryland 21285-0624 USA www.brookespublishing.com

Copyright © 2023 by Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., Inc.

All rights reserved. “Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.” is a registered trademark of

Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., Inc. Typeset by Progressive Publishing Services, York, Pennsylvania.

Manufactured in the United States of America by Integrated Books International, Inc., Dulles, Virginia.

the authors’ experiences. In all instances, names and identifying details have been changed to protect confidentiality. Purchasers of Teaching Cognates/Cognados Through Picture Books: Resources for Fostering Spanish–English Vocabu-

lary Connections are granted permission to access the online companion website titled the Cognate Companion for educational purposes. The website may not be used to generate revenue for any program or individual. See the Accessing the Cognate Companion Website page for details on how to access the site. Cover photo by Javier Calderon/jaipixesphotography.

Names: Montelongo, José, 1974- author. | Hernandez, Anita, author. | Herter, Roberta J., author. Title: Teaching cognates/cognados through picture books : resources for fostering Spanish—English vocabulary

Cover photo by Javier Calderon/jaipixesphotography.

Title: Teaching cognates/cognados through picture books : resources for fostering Spanish—English vocabulary
connections / by José A. Montelongo, Anita Hernández, and Roberta J. Herter. Description: Baltimore : Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., [2023] | Includes bibliographical references. Identifiers: LCCN 2022036100 (print) | LCCN 2022036101 (ebook) | ISBN 9781934000458 (paperback) |
ISBN 9781681256924 (epub) | ISBN 9781681256931 (pdf ) Subjects: LCSH: English language—Study and teaching (Elementary)—Spanish speakers. |
Spanish language—Study and teaching (Elementary)—English speakers. | English language—Cognate words. | Spanish language—Cognate words. | Picture books for children—Educational aspects—United States. |
Education, Bilingual—United States. Classification: LCC PE1129.S8 M54 2023 (print) | LCC PE1129.S8 (ebook) | DDC 468.3/421—dc23/eng/20220909 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022036100 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022036101

British Library Cataloguing in Publication data are available from the British Library.

Accessing the Cognate Companion Website .vii About the Authors.ix Preface.xi For the Reader.xv Acknowledgments.xvii

1 The Power of Cognates for Bilingual Learners.1 Objectives.1 Cognate Play.1 What Are Spanish–English Cognates?3 The Importance of Teaching Cognates.5 All Teachers Can Incorporate Cognates in their Lessons.8 Summary.14 Reflection and Action.15

2 Introducing Students to Cognates.17 Objectives.17 Cognate Play.17 The Importance of Teaching Cognates as a Language Category.18 Getting Started with Teaching Strategies for Cognates.19 Cognates as Context Clues.25 Summary.32 Reflection and Action.33

3 Using Picture Book Read-Alouds to Teach Cognates.35 Objectives.35 Cognate Play.35 Engaging Bilingual Learners with Cognates in Picture Books.36 Sequencing Cognate Activities for Read-Alouds.37 Summary.47 Reflection and Action.47

4 Teaching Cognate Prefixes and Root Words.49 Objectives.49 Cognate Play.49 Prefixes, Root Words, and the Generative Nature of Language.50 Teaching Bilingual Learners about Prefixes.55 Focusing on Root Words.59 Reinforcing the Learning of Prefixes and Root Words.61 Summary.65 Reflection and Action.65

5 Teaching Cognate Suffixes.67 Objectives.67 Cognate Play.67 Suffixes and the Generative Nature of Language.68

Contents

Teaching Cognate Suffix Conversion Rules in English and Spanish ..... 71 Reinforcing the Learning of Cognate Suffix Rules ..... 75 Summary ..... 78 Reflection and Action ..... 79

6 Cognate Spelling Rules ..... 81 Objectives ..... 81 Cognate Play ..... 81 Spanish and English Spelling Rules ..... 82 Teaching Cognate Spelling Rules ..... 83 Reinforcing the Learning of Cognate Spelling Rules ..... 97 Summary ..... 98 Reflection and Action ..... 99

7 Planning Cognate Lessons Using Picture Books ..... 101 Objectives ..... 101 Cognate Play ..... 101 Choosing Picture Books and Cognates for a Read-Aloud ..... 102 Designing a Lesson with the Cognate Lesson Plan Template ..... 106 Summary ..... 113 Reflection and Action ..... 113

8 Designing Content-Area Thematic Units ..... 115 Objectives ..... 115 Cognate Play ..... 115 Designing a Content-Area Thematic Unit ..... 116 Summary ..... 129 Reflection and Action ..... 130

9 Designing an Introductory Cognate Unit of Instruction ..... 131 Objectives ..... 131 Cognate Play ..... 131 Creating a Thematic Unit on Spanish–English Cognates ..... 132 Summary ..... 141 Reflection and Action ..... 142

References ..... 143 Children's Literature References ..... 147 Glossary ..... 149 Index ..... 153

Accessing the Cognate Companion Website

tion into their regular content-area instruction. The Cognate Companion is a rich, searchable database of hundreds of award-winning picture books and the cognates found in these books. It also includes access to more than 300 brief cognate lesson plans than accompany the picture books, as well as with other useful downloads. The lesson plans are mentioned throughout this book in the Lesson Plan sidebars. Purchasers of Teaching Cognates/Cognados through Picture Books are granted permission to access the Cognate Companion website for educational purposes.

access the Cognate Companion website for educational purposes. To access the Cognate Companion:

1. Go to the Cognate Companion website https://brookespublishing.com/montelongo

2. Register to create an account and login.

3. Read the “How to Use the Cognate Companion Website” before getting started.

4. Read the "How to Use the Cognate Companion Website" before getting started.

About the Authors

José A. Montelongo has taught reading and been a school librarian in El Paso for over 15 years

José A. Montelongo has taught reading and been a school librarian in El Paso for over 15 years

prior to becoming a college librarian, teacher educator, and educational researcher. He has earned degrees in experimental psychology, education, and library science at University of Texas at El Paso, New Mexico State, and University of Texas at Austin, respectively. Dr. Montelongo’s research and writing interests focus on Spanish–English cognate vocabulary, reading expository text, and school librarianship.

Anita Hernández is Professor and the Don and Sarrah Kidd Endowed Chair in Literacy in the

Department of Teacher Preparation and Administration and Leadership at New Mexico State University. She was a bilingual teacher for 14 years and has taught future teachers and classroom teachers for the past 24 years. She earned her Ph.D. in Language, Literacy, and Culture at Stanford University. She teaches and publishes in the areas of teacher education, biliteracy, and critical literacy. She is co-author of Interactive Student Notebooks for English Learners, Text Sets: Scaffolding Core Literature for Secondary Students, and Viva Nuestro Caucus: Re-Writing the Forgotten Pages of our Caucus.

Roberta J. Herter taught English in Detroit Public Schools for 30 years, then went on to teach edu-

cators at Cal Poly, San Luis Obispo for 20 years. She earned her Ph.D. in English and Education at the University of Michigan. Her research and writing include literacy, writing, and second language learning.

ings and meanings in both languages. For example, the English words, “person” and “transportation,” are cognates of the Spanish words, persona and transportación, because of their respective Latinate origins. These words are among the more than 20,000 cognates in the English language, many of which are academic vocabulary words essential for reading and comprehending school texts. Systematic cognate instruction can strengthen the English and Spanish academic vocabulary of students from Spanish-speaking and bilingual homes, as well as that of students from English-speaking homes who are learning Spanish at school. Not surprisingly, language educators have long been in favor of teaching Spanish–English cognates to bilingual learners—emergent and experienced— because of the ease with which the ortho

nates to bilingual learners—emergent and experienced— because of the ease with which the ortho graphically transparent words can be learned. To date, however, cognate instruction has generally been sporadic; rarely integrated coherently into content-area instruction. This book provides the first systematic and comprehensive guide to Spanish–English cognate instruction and assessment for bilingual teachers working in elementary classrooms, in bilingual (using two languages for instructional purposes) and in English-medium (primarily using English for instructional purpose) programs. A distinguishing feature of this book is that it is also for monolingual Englishspeaking teachers who work with diverse Spanish–English bilingual learners, and who see cognates as an important way to honor and enrich the oral and written Spanish language resources their students bring to the classroom. This professional learning guide includes access to a companion website that we refer to as the Cognate Companion, a searchable database that is organized around the titles of more than 3,000

Cognate Companion, a searchable database that is organized around the titles of more than 3,000 award-winning picture books. Teachers can search the Cognate Companion for picture books by title, author, subject, and reading-level to find appropriate picture books and all of their cognates, prefixes, roots, suffixes, reading levels, and subject areas. The Cognate Companion also includes access to “snap-on” cognate lesson plans that can easily be integrated into teachers’ regular lesson plans, as well as a template with step-by-step directions for customizing instruction to address students’ needs more precisely. BENEFITS OF COGNATE INSTRUCTION

BENEFITS OF COGNATE INSTRUCTION There are several benefits of cognate instruction and assessment for students. First, as students

ers. This book and its Cognate Companion website work together as a professional learning guide xi

learn to recognize cognates and cognate parts, they can dramatically increase their academic vocabulary in both English and Spanish, which is an important part of academic biliteracy. Teaching emerging bilingual learners about Spanish–English cognates can also elevate the status of Spanish at school and help legitimize the Spanish language as a significant resource to be valued and learned, not only in bilingual classrooms but also in English-medium classrooms. Further, by using the book and its database, teachers can help their students unveil the morphological, orthographic, and semantic relationships between the English and Spanish languages, thereby providing them with a foundation for developing their metalinguistic awareness, knowledge, and skills. There are also benefits of our approach to teaching cognates using picture books for teachers. This book and its Cognate Companion website work together as a professional learning guide and assessment and evaluation specialists who expect their bilingual students to develop strong academic vocabulary across content-areas in two languages. At least as important, college and university teacher educators can use this book and its Cognate Companion to introduce preservice teachers and graduate students to the use of Spanish–English cognates to develop academic vocabulary across two languages. Cognates can be an invaluable resource for creating rich instructional materials and lessons that will result in the advancement of schoolchildren’s linguistic and meta-linguistic abilities. THE AUTHORS

This book and its Cognate Companion arose from the authors’ experiences as reading and writ-

ing teachers. As a reading teacher and school librarian who prided himself on developing his own materials and lessons, Dr. José Montelongo has introduced many elementary school students and their teachers to Spanish–English cognates through picture book read-alouds and vocabulary lessons to accompany the readings. Classically trained in the methods of cognitive psychology, he has also designed and conducted research studies on learning and memory for Spanish–English cognates and has written several articles on cognates. Dr. Anita Hernández is a research professor of education with expertise in language, literacy, and culture. The principal investigator of several federal professional development grants, Dr.

and culture. The principal investigator of several federal professional development grants, Dr. Hernández stresses the need for her preservice students and in-service teachers to incorporate Spanish–English cognates in both monolingual English and bilingual classrooms. She has also coauthored several articles and books on cognates and culturally relevant texts. Dr. Roberta Herter— a professor, teacher educator, and high school English teacher who is monolingual in English— has been a strong advocate for incorporating cognate instruction with

monolingual in English— has been a strong advocate for incorporating cognate instruction with her secondary preservice students. She, too, has co-authored many articles on Spanish–English cognates. In our experiences as classroom teachers and teacher educators, we have found that Spanish– English cognates have not received the attention they deserve in today’s language classrooms. Lan-

English cognates have not received the attention they deserve in today’s language classrooms. Language and content-area textbooks devote few, if any, lessons on cognates. As a result, the teachers we have encountered in college classrooms, schools, and educational conferences are often unfamiliar with cognates or their importance as academic vocabulary words or their language development potential for emergent bilingual learners. As schoolteachers and teacher educators with degrees in bilingual education, literacy, English, library science, and psychology, we have endeavored to create a book and database as resources for

library science, and psychology, we have endeavored to create a book and database as resources for elementary school classroom teachers and students learning in two languages. Our aim is to expand the teaching and learning of vocabulary by incorporating Spanish–English cognates through picture book instructional contexts, whether they are fluent in Spanish or not. We also want to expand the teaching of cognates from understanding them to identifying their morphological patterns and ways for all teachers to incorporate them in content-area units of study, with the goal of tapping into students’ linguistic backgrounds and developing metalinguistic awareness about their two languages. HOW TO USE THIS BOOK AND ITS COGNATE COMPANION WEBSITE

We wrote this book and its Cognate Companion so that the resources can be used by individual

mentary grades are included. The final chapter presents an example cognate unit of instruction, which can be modified for different grade levels. To facilitate the creation of cognate lesson plans, we searched through thousands of awardwinning picture books and recorded every one of the Spanish–English cognates found in each

winning picture books and recorded every one of the Spanish–English cognates found in each selected book, and listed those on the Cognate Companion website. This resource will permit teachers to plan cognate lessons regardless of their own Spanish or English proficiency. And because the cognates are drawn from popular picture books, they represent a vocabulary pool of words that reflect current themes and content-area subjects appropriate for elementary school students. In addition to the listing of the Spanish–English cognates from award-winning picture books that can readily be found in school and public libraries, the Cognate Companion also provides a

that can readily be found in school and public libraries, the Cognate Companion also provides a breakdown of the Spanish–English cognates into their morphological elements. Because the great majority of Spanish–English cognates are Latinate or Greek in origin, teachers can use this feature of the database to plan lessons for essential prefixes, root words, and suffixes. Teachers we work with notice the facilitative effects that teaching Spanish–English cognates has on spelling. They see an improvement in students’ spelling because of the specific rules for

has on spelling. They see an improvement in students’ spelling because of the specific rules for converting English words to Spanish words. The Cognate Companion includes a field for selecting rule-governed cognates to assist in creating lesson plans. As a time-saving measure, we created more than 300 ready-to-use lesson plans for Spanish, English, and/or bilingual picture books. The lesson plans include activities such as using con-

English, and/or bilingual picture books. The lesson plans include activities such as using context clues, creating flashcards, teaching morphology, making crossword puzzles, and engaging in sentence-completion exercises to help students expand their knowledge of cognates. Explore the Cognate Companion and its many curricular features. We pledge to add to the current list of awardwinning picture books and the cognates they contain by including future award-winning books, more lesson plans, and further activities to promote the teaching and learning of Spanish–English cognates and the patterns that govern them. Watch the Cognate Companion website for these developments. José A. Montelongo,

Anita Hernández, Roberta J. Herter

For the Reader

A Guide to This Book’s Formatting Conventions

cognate rules, and components of language discussed throughout this text. To facilitate your reading experience, we have listed those formatting conventions below for your reference. GLOSSARY TERMS

GLOSSARY TERMS Bolded words in this book are terms that are defined in the Glossary. See the back matter of this

book to find those definitions. LANGUAGES: ENGLISH AND SPANISH

Throughout the book, English text and scripts are set in a Roman (plain) font. Spanish text and

The titles of picture books are underlined to set them off. While book titles are typically italicized,

scripts are set in italic font. BOOK TITLES

we chose to underline in order to distinguish them from the italicized Spanish text. COGNATE RULES

COGNATE RULES Similarly for cognate pairs, the English cognate will be set in Roman font, whereas the Spanish

cognate will be in italics. Pairs are indicated by a slash between them (e.g., famous/famoso). Cognate parts use the same Roman and italics convention and are set in slashes (e.g., /des-/ for Spanish and /dis-/ for English). COMPONENTS OF LANGUAGE

English, but angle brackets for the letter in Spanish (e.g., “c” as in “cat” vs. «g» in «gato»). The same convention is used for full words. When phonemes (i.e., units of sound in language) are discussed, the book uses square brackets for phonetic transcription (e.g., [k] as in “cat”).

for phonetic transcription (e.g., [k] as in “cat”).

Acknowledgments

leagues, Dr. Rebecca Field and Charles Field, whose nurturing guidance informed this work. We are also thankful to the editors at Brookes Publishing Co. and Caslon, Inc., especially Liz Gildea and Nicole Schmidl, for supporting us through this book and database project. We would like to acknowledge the many colleagues, teachers, graduate students, librarians, and principals who helped make this work possible. We would especially like to acknowledge the

and principals who helped make this work possible. We would especially like to acknowledge the faculties at Magoffin Middle School, Douglass Elementary School, and Deanna Davenport Elementary School in the El Paso, Texas area. Likewise, we would like to acknowledge the help of the many schools in the Hatch Valley School District (Michael Chávez), the Gadsden Independent School District (Travis Dempsey, María Hernández, Jorge Araújo), the Las Cruces Independent School District in New Mexico (Dr. Roberto Lozano, Carla Rodriguez Reagan, and Dr. Aine Garcia Post), and the Guadalupe Joint Union School District, Guadalupe, California for facilitating our work with teachers and students in their school district. Graduate students are important for growing knowledge in the field. We would like to acknowledge the graduate students at New Mexico State University who contributed to new knowledge

Graduate students are important for growing knowledge in the field. We would like to acknowledge the graduate students at New Mexico State University who contributed to new knowledge about Spanish–English cognates: Dr. Francisco Javier Serrano-Wall, Dr. Hillary Vozza, Dr. Yvonne Martínez, Dr. Paulo Oemig, as well as our current graduate students: Ignocencia Campos, Ida Madrid, Laura Urbina, Joseph Mata, Sylvia Nájera, Maricela Rincón, and Elisa Holguín. We are especially grateful to the teachers: Pat Minjares, Rita Holguín, Rosa Delgado, Eliana Esquivel, and Sonia Chávez in New Mexico, as well as Jaime Cuello, Tino Alemán, Rosario Aronie,

Esquivel, and Sonia Chávez in New Mexico, as well as Jaime Cuello, Tino Alemán, Rosario Aronie, Julee Bauer, Rosie García, Martha García, María González, Camelia Ortiz-Álvarez, and Sal Reynoso in California. We would also like to acknowledge the librarians and assistants at the various branches of the El Paso Public Library and the Thomas Branigan Library in Las Cruces for their assistance in the

El Paso Public Library and the Thomas Branigan Library in Las Cruces for their assistance in the acquisition of the many award-winning picture books included in the Cognate Companion. Thanks also to the following individuals:

• Mr. Carlos Montelongo for his expertise and help with computer technology throughout

late Dr. Leonard Davidman, Dr. Sue McBride, Dr. O.D. Hadfield, Dr. Suchint Sarangarm, Navjit Brar, Douglas Gates, Barbara Schaeder, Lynn Gamble, Laura Blanco, José Cabrales, John Wheatley, and the late Mike Payán • The many authors of children’s books for their creative genius in making this genre so pleasurable for children and grown-ups

able for children and grown-ups Most importantly, this book is for the bilingual learners whose experiences, languages, and

knowledge have for so long been relegated to the “back of the classroom.” and statistician par excellence, and of my father, Mr. José A. Montelongo, Sr. —JAM For my children: Analicia, José Alejandro, Marco Antonio, and Juan Andrés, and for my grandchildren: Madison Rose, Andrew Matthew, Joseph Noah, and Jude Alexander. —JAM

to the Literacy programs at New Mexico State University and throughout the state. —ACH To my mentors, Dr. Guadalupe Valdés and Dr. Kenji Hakuta. —ACH For my family and all of their support and love: Rosa and Aurelio
Hernández, my brothers, nieces and nephews, and the Pindter family. —ACH

To Anne Ruggles Gere and the memory of Jay Luke Robinson, who
inspired a second career and the pleasure of lifelong literacy learning. —RJH

1

The Power of Cognates for Bilingual Learners

OBJECTIVES

Define cognates and explain why they are an important category of words. Discuss how Spanish–English

Discuss how Spanish–English cognates became part of the English language. Describe how teachers can use

Describe how teachers can use picture books to teach Spanish– English cognates. Explain how teaching cognates

Explain how teaching cognates can enhance the vocabulary development of bilingual learners.

Cognate Play

LESSON PLAN Side by Side/Lado

Side by Side/Lado a lado: The Story of Dolores Huerta and César Chávez/Lado a lado: La historia de Dolores Huerta y César Chávez (Brown, 2010)

Spanish texts below, taken from a page of the bilingual picture book, Side by Side/Lado a lado: The Story of Dolores Huerta and César Chávez/La historia de Dolores Huerta y César Chávez by Monica Brown: “Dolores and Cesar drove from town to town, standing on the back of

“Dolores and Cesar drove from town to town, standing on the back of flatbed trucks and inviting farmworkers to join la causa, the cause for justice. Together they demanded better living working conditions for the farmworkers.”

de los camiones e invitaban a los campesinos a unirse a la causa a favor de la justicia. Juntos

exigieron mejores condiciones de trabajo y de vida para los campesinos.»

or nearly the same in both spelling and meaning in the bilingual texts. Did you find inviting/ invitando, cause/causa, justice/justicia, and conditions/condiciones? There is a special term for words that are similar in spelling and meaning in both Spanish and English— cognates.

s an English speaker reading a Spanish text or as a Spanish speaker reading an English text, you have probably noted the occurrences of cognates and treated them simply as Arandom coincidences. You may be surprised to learn that there are more than 20,000 such Spanish–English cognates. And if you’re like most of the teachers we’ve encountered in our work, you may even ask yourself the question, “Why was I never explicitly taught about these words in school, or in my teacher education program?” This book is about teaching Spanish-English cognates in the elementary grades. Teaching them early and often. Not as a once-in-a-semester topic as is often the case in textbooks, but as

them early and often. Not as a once-in-a-semester topic as is often the case in textbooks, but as an important component of the vocabulary lessons explicitly taught to students. Just the sheer number of cognates in the English language merits their inclusion in the vocabulary curriculum. But there is more to cognates than that. Teaching students, all students, about Spanish–English cognates enriches their vocabulary development because of their importance for academic literacy. Cognates comprise from one-third to one-half of an educated person’s vocabulary. They also make up a sizable portion of the academic vocabulary found in the disciplines at all grade levels, from the early primary grades to the college years. And because they are ubiquitous throughout the academic curriculum teachers can begin cognate instruction as early as Grades K–5 through the medium of picture books. Teaching Spanish–English cognates can be particularly advantageous to bilingual learners. This term includes students from Spanish-speaking homes who are learning English at school, stu-

Teaching Spanish–English cognates can be particularly advantageous to bilingual learners. This term includes students from Spanish-speaking homes who are learning English at school, students from English-speaking homes who are learning Spanish at school, as well as students who come from bilingual homes, can speak Spanish and English, but are mostly seen as English speakers at school. These diverse bilingual learners bring a wide range of expertise in oral and written English and Spanish that teachers can build on to dramatically expand their vocabulary. Because Spanish speakers learning English have developed a sizable Spanish vocabulary, they are able to recognize and acquire those English cognates that resemble the Spanish words they already know. Similarly, English speakers learning Spanish benefit from recognizing and learning cognates that are similar to the English words they know. Since cognates have so much potential for students learning English or Spanish as a new language, we believe that teaching them to bilingual learners can be a game changer for these students. Teachers who use this book will learn strategies for integrating cognate instruction into their regular content-area instruction, in their bilingual and general education classrooms.

their regular content-area instruction, in their bilingual and general education classrooms. To inform and enrich their work, we have created the Cognate Companion database. See the Accessing the Cognate Companion Website page in the front matter of the book for guidance on accessing the site. Did you know?

of the book for guidance on accessing the site. The Cognate Companion is a rich resource that includes thousands of award-winning picture book titles and the cognates found

of the picture books in the database. We refer to each brief lesson plan as a snap-on cognate lesson plan because it can be integrated easily into content-area instruction. Every picture book discussed in this book has a lesson plan for it on the Cognate Companion; teachers will find Lesson Plan callouts throughout the book directing their attention to some of these lesson plans. Teachers can also use the Cognate Companion to create their own lessons. We include a brief cognate lesson planning template later in this book that teachers can use to create cognate lessons for their own classes.

There are more than 300 cognate

to the history of the English and Spanish languages and how they relate to each other. Next, we explain how students who are learning English, Spanish, or both can benefit from the inclusion of cognates in the curriculum. We further suggest that all teachers, regardless of their English and Spanish proficiency, can use cognates as part of their interdisciplinary vocabulary instruction using the common literary practice of the picture book read-aloud and its associated activities. Finally, we look at Spanish–English cognates through the lens of the three-tier vocabulary system suggested by Beck et al. (2002; 2008), for selecting the words to include in their lessons. WHAT ARE SPANISH–ENGLISH COGNATES?

Thus far, we have provided only a general idea of what cognates are. A more precise definition is

that Spanish–English cognates are words that are spelled identically or similarly in both English and Spanish and possess the same or nearly the same meanings in both languages as a result of a shared etymology— the origin of a word and the historical development of its meaning. The following English and Spanish word pairs are examples of cognates: chocolate/chocolate, family/ familia, mathematics/matemáticas, rapidly/rápidamente, and suspension/suspensión. Other languages share cognates (e.g., English-Italian, Spanish-French), but in this book we focus on word pairs that are similar in Spanish and English. Spanish–English cognates possess varying degrees of similarity. Some are identical in the way they are spelled in both English and Spanish: actor/actor, horrible/horrible, and festival/

way they are spelled in both English and Spanish: actor/actor, horrible/horrible, and festival/ festival. Others are spelled similarly: attract/atraer, button/botón, and normally/ normalmente. Some cognates are so dissimilar it is difficult to believe they’re cognates—as in the cases of autumn/otoño and flame/llama. Furthermore, cognates often differ in pronunciation, regardless of whether they are orthographically identical, similar, or different. Some cognates are basic frequent words that need no instruction as to their meanings: elephant/ elefante, fa mily/familia, and tomato/tomate. Others are academic vocabulary words,

elephant/ elefante, fa mily/familia, and tomato/tomate. Others are academic vocabulary words, which are traditionally used in scholarly dialogue and text and require explicit teacher-directed instruction such as congress/congreso, energy/energía, and triangle/triángulo. One important feature of this book is that it introduces teachers to rules for transforming Spanish words to their English cognates, as well as English words to their Spanish cognates. When cognates are incorporated in instruction, students can develop both their cognate recognition skills and their cognate generation skills. That is, they can learn to guess the

We have been fortunate to work in diverse bilingual and dual language classrooms with

Spanish–English cognates at the beginning of the school term. Mrs. García teaches the Spanish language component of the first-grade dual language curriculum and Ms. Holcomb teaches the English language component. Mrs. García is bilingual and has more than 20 years of experience, while Ms. Holcomb is a monolingual English speaker with little experience working with students who are in early stages of English language development. Through the dialogue we learn learners whose home language is Spanish and who are just beginning to learn English at school: Mrs. García: Are you all set for the little ones coming in on Monday?

Ms. Holcomb: I think so. I’m just a little worried about how to teach some of the students who

don’t speak much English. Do you have any suggestions? Mrs. García: One of the things that works really well with my students is to introduce them to

cognates. Do you know about cognates? Ms. Holcomb: Are they the words that mean the same in Spanish and English?

Mrs. García: Exactly. They’re great for helping kids learn vocabulary. I always point them out

when I do a read-aloud of a picture book. The students like them because they are easy to learn. They also like the fact that their Spanish can help them. The exchange between Mrs. García and Ms. Holcomb highlights an important point we have

found in our work with teachers: those who have taught their students about Spanish–English cognates are often the best advocates for teaching these powerful vocabulary words. The History of Spanish–English Cognates

Since cognates happen to be identical or similar in the English and Spanish languages, teachers

and students might ask how these words came to be a part of the English language. To answer this question, we should first state that the most frequent English words have their roots in the Germanic languages spoken by the early English peoples. Spanish, like French and Italian, is a Latin-based language. Over the centuries, Latin-based words have entered into the English language as a result of the contact between the English people and their neighbors who spoke a Latinate language. Many of these words are the cognates we will introduce in this book. Important periods in the history of the English language are presented in Figure 1.1. As we can see in Figure 1.1, English and Spanish originated in different branches of the Indo- European family of languages. English belongs to the Germanic branch of the Indo-European

European family of languages. English belongs to the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family (via West Germanic and Old English) while Spanish is a member of the Italic— later Latin— branch of that same family.

Borrowings from Latin and Greek today were not present in the classical periods but are created from Latin and Greek prefixes, root words, and suffixes (Brinton & Arnovick, 2006).

Latin and Greek prefixes, root words, and suffixes (Brinton & Arnovick, 2006). Early Modern English (1500–1700 AD)

Among them are the cognates “catalogue,” “museum,” and “orchestra” (Carver, 1991). Middle English (1100–1500 AD)

Latin and Greek words were the chief sources of new words during the Early Modern English period. Among them are the cognates “catalogue,” “museum,” and “orchestra” (Carver, 1991).

peaceful coexistence with the Celts (Brinton & Arnovick, 2006).

Figure 1.1. Important periods in the history of the English language.

Latin-based Spanish–English cognates became part of the English language and are still used today: mile/milla, plant/planta, and wine/vino. Old English, which was spoken between 450 A.D. and 1100 A.D., evolved from the language brought to Britain by the Germanic tribes. The Old English of this time period was almost

brought to Britain by the Germanic tribes. The Old English of this time period was almost purely Germanic (e.g., “mile,” “plant,” “wine”). Latin words related to religion were introduced by Catholic missionaries in the seventh and eighth centuries, some of which are present-day Spanish–English cognates. Examples of these include altar/altar, d i sciple/ discípulo, and mass/misa. The Norman conquest of Britain in 1066 A.D. by William the Conqueror, brought a great influx of French words to English in the period now known as Middle English (1100 A.D. to 1500 A.D.). The

of French words to English in the period now known as Middle English (1100 A.D. to 1500 A.D.). The Norman Vikings spoke French which, like Spanish, is a Latin-based language. It is estimated that over 10,000 French words entered into the English language during this period (Baugh & Cable, 2012), and approximately 75% of them are still used today (Carver, 1991). Among the Spanish– English cognates that entered into English during this period were calendar/ calendario, dragon/ dragón, and talent/talento. The French words that entered English reflected the high status of the Norman conquerors, especially in the areas of government, law, the military, and church affairs (Baugh & Cable,

ors, especially in the areas of government, law, the military, and church affairs (Baugh & Cable, 2012). Cognates such as battle/batalla, justice/justicia, sermon/sermón, and state/estado can be traced to the elevated positions held by the Normans in English life. Befitting their social status, the Normans lived well and the French words that entered into the English language reflect their lofty positions in society. Cognates such as feast/festín, lemon/limón, and pork/ puerco are French in origin, as are castle/castillo, mansion/mansión, melody/melodía, and romance/romance (Brinton & Arnovick, 2006). During this period of French supremacy, Old English existed as a lower-class dialect spoken mostly by the peasants, artisans, and laborers (Brinton & Arnovick, 2006). The Modern English Period (1700 A.D. to the present), is still influenced by Latin and Greek. However, many of these new words were created from the Latin and Greek prefixes, root words,

However, many of these new words were created from the Latin and Greek prefixes, root words, and suffixes (Brinton & Arnovick, 2006). That is, they did not come directly from the Latin and Greek of the classical period. Furthermore, new English words are constantly being borrowed from other languages. Some of these, too, eventually become English–Spanish cognates as they are incorporated by these two languages.

Today, the influence of history is still being felt, and it manifests itself everywhere in the

up until the 1800s, many of the Spanish–English cognates are academic vocabulary words (Hiebert & Lubliner, 2008). Cognates are the words teachers and students encounter in their content area textbooks. They are the words in boldface type that are often defined in textbook glossaries. Of the 570 words on the Coxhead (2000) Academic Word List, 82% or 465 are Spanish– English cognates. The importance of cognates also is evident at the library. An analysis of the Dewey Decimal System, by which books in school and public libraries are arranged, filosofía, religion/religión) are Spanish–English cognates (Montelongo, 2012). Cognate instruction allows students to strengthen connections between their home language and what they are learning in English across all content areas. We know that strong language and

and what they are learning in English across all content areas. We know that strong language and literacy skills— not only in English but in their home languages— are associated with increased academic achievement for diverse bilingual learners, including students from Spanish-speaking, English-speaking, and bilingual households. Given the size of the student population who either use Spanish at home, and/or are learning Spanish at school, and the fact that Latinos rarely reach academic parity with their White counterparts, cognate instruction can be a powerful tool for increasing student literacy levels, thereby enhancing overall academic achievement. Facilitating Vocabulary Acquisition and Retention

Bilingual learners who have a working knowledge of cognates can use their expertise to decipher

the meaning of unfamiliar words. For example, when a bilingual learner familiar with cognates encounters an unfamiliar English word such as “edifice” in the text, this student can almost instantly recognize that it as similar to the Spanish word, «edificio», a word that is in the student’s background knowledge. The student can then re-read the text this time substituting “edifice” for «edificio». If the guess fits the context meaningfully, the student can make the connection that “edifice” is the cognate of «edificio», thereby facilitating the formation of an association between the English word and its Spanish cognate. With repeated practice, a direct connection between the two cognates can be established in memory (DeGroot & Nas, 1991). Such is not the case with noncognates. Take, for example, the English word, “building”, and «edificio», its Spanish equivalent. “Building” does not possess the orthographic similarity

and «edificio», its Spanish equivalent. “Building” does not possess the orthographic similarity to « edificio» that would make the bilingual learner recognize them as being equivalent. Explicit instruction or a visit to the dictionary is necessary for “building” and «edificio» to be seen as equivalents. As a result, it is more difficult for the bilingual learner to make a connection between “building” and «edificio». It would also be more difficult to remember that “building” and « edificio» are synonyms than to recall that “edifice” and «edificio» share the same meaning. Since cognates are easier to learn than noncognates because of their similarity to Spanish words, their formation of memory associations are stronger (De Groot & Keijzer, 2008; Montelongo, 2002). Meeting the Standards

Cognate instruction can be used to meet state reading and language standards because of the

homes where only Spanish is spoken, others come from homes where English and Spanish are spoken, while others come from English-speaking homes. Those who come from homes where Spanish is spoken have acquired the rule-governed phonological, syntactic, and semantic systems of Spanish. As a result of the many similarities between English and their home language Spanish, these students come to school with background knowledge that can be highly transferable for the learning of English essential to becoming bilingual and biliterate. School curricula bilingual learners bring to the school setting. Unfortunately, cognate instruction is rarely integrated into the school curriculum. Rather, the road to bilingualism is often fraught with obstacles, many of which are rooted in political

the road to bilingualism is often fraught with obstacles, many of which are rooted in political biases that disadvantage the bilingual learner. Such is the case with the way languages and cultures are represented and evaluated. For example, English is afforded more status than Spanish in most U.S. contexts. The English spoken by monolingual English-speaking students and their mainstream American cultural practices are generally valued and promoted over the Spanish spoken by Spanish-speaking students and their home cultures. Bilingual learners, particularly those from low-income Spanish-speaking homes, are often made to hurdle insurmountable language barriers in a school system that rarely reflects or validates their linguistic and cultural backgrounds. With the exception of dual language bilingual programs, schools seldom encourage the continued acquisition and development of their students’ home language and Spanish culture. Indeed, throughout the history of U.S. education, Mexican American and Latino students have often been labeled and treated as “deficient” or handicapped because they are new to English. Another way in which political bias negatively impacts bilingual learners is in a lack of quality teaching these students receive. Some describe inequitable instruction as an oppor-

quality teaching these students receive. Some describe inequitable instruction as an opportunity gap, in that, unlike their monolingual peers, bilingual learners are often taught by teachers insufficiently prepared for this work. Fortunately, studies suggest that teachers who are TESOL (Teaching English to Speaker of Other Languages), or bilingually certified, or who are themselves bilingual, or bilingual

bilingually certified, or who are themselves bilingual, or bilingual in English and Spanish make the best teachers of bilingual students (Hopkins, 2012). The lack of adequate language acquisition training and certification requirements is evidence of the political bias among state and local leaders. We believe that bilingual instruction for Spanish-speaking bilingual learners, or teaching the home language as a subject (e.g.,

bilingual learners, or teaching the home language as a subject (e.g., Spanish for Spanish speakers) is socially right and just. Despite the lack of support for bilingual education, we feel that school curricula can and  should be changed to support bilingual learners’ academic achievement by teaching these students Spanish– English cognates.

Did you know? (Hopkins, 2012). The lack of adequate language acquisition training Teachers can search the

Teachers can search

Teachers can search the Cognate Companion for children’s books addressing bilingualism, including: • The Cow that Went Oink

• Pepita Speaks Twice/ Pepita habla dos veces (Lachtman, 1995) • Speak English for us

• Speak English for us Marisol
(English, 2005)

English cognates. The idea is neither novel nor new. For decades, educators have recommended teaching cognates to bilingual learners because of the similarities

mended teaching cognates to bilingual learners because of the similarities between the English words and their Spanish cognates (e.g., Corson, 1997; Johnson, 1941). Teaching cognates represents an “assets” approach in literacy instruction— one that builds on the knowledge that students already have— in contrast to a “deficit” approach, which assumes that Latino-English learners are deficient because they lack English (Valencia, 2010). Teaching cognates enables Spanish-speaking bilingual learners to engage with literacy more effectively than strategies that ignore or denigrate the linguistic knowledge these students bring to the classroom (Cummins, 2005). Lubliner and Hiebert (2011) correctly suggest that the effect of a Latinate background Pepita Speaks Twice/ is to provide Latino bilingual learners with “funds of knowledge” (Moll et al., 1992) that give them an advantage over their English-only peers regarding acquisition of academic vocabulary. In contrast to English-only policies, we believe that bilingual teachers should be urged to use all of their language abilities to model and promote

Students at all levels of English and Spanish proficiency can benefit from learning Spanish–

English cognates. We find diverse bilingual learners in a wide range of contexts, including dual language and transitional bilingual programs, English-medium classes, and in Spanish classes for students new to Spanish as well as heritage Spanish speakers. Our experience working with teachers in different types of programs for bilingual learners has taught us that all teachers, regardless of their proficiency in English or Spanish, can provide effective cognate instruction as an integral part of their content-area teaching. Bilingual teachers who work in dual language, transitional bilingual, world language, and heritage language classes can draw on their own bilingualism as a resource for cognate instruc-

heritage language classes can draw on their own bilingualism as a resource for cognate instruction. Monolingual English-speaking teachers working in dual language or general education programs can also teach cognates by drawing more on students’ bilingualism. By teaching their students about cognates, they can help their students become better readers, writers, and communicators in both of their languages. In this book, we present strategies that we have found effective for teaching Spanish–English cognates through picture book read-alouds and related activities. As we discuss strategies, we will present examples observed in the classrooms of the following teachers: Mrs. García, whom we met in the opening vignette, is a Spanish–English bilingual teacher

who teaches the first-grade Spanish language component in a dual language classroom comprised of students from English-speaking, Spanish-speaking, and bilingual homes. Mrs. García is an experienced bilingual teacher who finds cognate strategies to be effective in her practice. Ms. Holcomb, whom we also met in the opening vignette, is Mrs. García’s teaching partner.

She is an English monolingual who teaches the first-grade English language component in the dual language program. Ms. Holcomb is a new teacher who looks to her experienced partner teacher as a mentor and coach. Ms. Smith teaches a second-grade general education class that includes many Spanish-

speaking bilinguals who are officially designated as English learners, and she has a certification in TESOL. Ms. Smith is a monolingual English-speaking teacher who integrates cognate instruction into her content-area instruction, particularly English language arts. Mr. Hampton is a Spanish teacher who teaches third grade in a Spanish immersion pro-

gram, and all of his students are from monolingual English-speaking homes. Mr. Hampton uses cognate instruction to accelerate his students’ academic vocabulary development in both Spanish and English. Mrs. Martínez is a Spanish–English bilingual teacher in a third-grade transitional bilin-

gual education classroom. Bilingual learners are generally exited from the bilingual program between second and fifth grades, depending on their English language proficiency. To date, the bilingual teachers have been using cognates as an integral part of the bilingual program. The school where she teaches has recently decided to engage all teachers in learning to teach cognates. Mr. Cuello is a bilingual fourth-grade teacher in a bilingual classroom that includes instruction with his heterogeneous group of students. is a monolingual English-speaking teacher who teaches English as a sec-

Ms. Williams

ond language to fifth-grade students. Her newcomers are all Spanish speakers, some of whom can read and write in Spanish and others who have had their schooling interrupted and, therefore, have not yet developed strong literacy skills. Her bilingual learners who have been in the United States for more than one year are from many different parts of the world, and they speak many different languages, including Spanish. Most of these students have reached intermediate and advanced levels of English language proficiency. We also include a few examples from other teachers that we have met through our work in schools.

We also include a few examples from other teachers that we have met through our work in schools.

Prioritizing the teaching of vocabulary in the early primary grades promotes the advancement

of language learning for all students. To put this task in perspective, a broad range of academic vocabulary can be generated from about 4,000 root words, taught in the early grades (Biemiller, 2001). In the primary grades, vocabulary teaching is embedded in reading instruction and is mostly limited to those words children already use in speech (Beck et al., 2002). These authors recom-

limited to those words children already use in speech (Beck et al., 2002). These authors recommend that teachers look outside their basal readers for words to enrich the vocabularies of their primary grade students. They specifically encourage the practice of using the picture book readaloud for vocabulary enrichment. Teaching vocabulary to primary schoolchildren through storybook read-alouds has been an established practice for decades (Dickinson & Smith, 1994). Research has shown that ele-

an established practice for decades (Dickinson & Smith, 1994). Research has shown that elementary schoolchildren learn new vocabulary words through picture book read-alouds when they are followed by activities that provide elaborations of word meanings (Beck & McKeown, 2007). Also, Elley (1989) found that children learned the meanings of words in picture books when teachers explained what the new words meant as they read. Kindle (2009) observed teachers using successful vocabulary-building strategies during picture book read-alouds that included definitions, examples, imagery, and morphemic analysis among other strategies. Finally, in a review of read-aloud studies, Biemiller and Boote (2006) concluded that explanations and elaborations of word meanings during read-alouds led to significant vocabulary gains, thus establishing further justification for read-alouds as vehicles for teaching vocabulary. Storybook read-alouds can be effective vehicles for teaching students new vocabulary because of the engaging interactions teachers can have with their students (Morgan, 2009). In our work with

Martha Speaks (Meddaugh, 1997; translated by Alejandra López Varela)

Martha Speaks

of the engaging interactions teachers can have with their students (Morgan, 2009). In our work with primary school bilingual learners, we, too, have found that picture book read-alouds are excellent for introducing bilingual learners to cognates and enriching vocabulary. Chil-

As defined by Fisher et al. (2004), “high-quality picture books” are those that have won an award or have been recommended by a literacy organization such as the International Literacy Association. Teachers can use picture books to design lessons that teach cognates and nurture the development of bilingualism and biliteracy.

excellent for introducing bilingual learners to cognates and enriching vocabulary. Children at all grade levels enjoy the read-alouds of picture books such as Martha Speaks (Meddaugh, 1997). Teachers need high-quality picture books for their read-alouds (Fisher et al, 2004). As defined by Fisher et al. (2004), “high-quality picture books” are those that have won an

The Cognate Companion is a comprehensive tool and resource that includes the listing of every

cognate in each of over 3,000 award-winning picture books. It also includes over 300 lesson plans, including lesson plans for all the picture books referred to in this book. The awards, such as the Caldecott Medal Award, which was first given in 1937, are Did you know?

awards, such as the Caldecott Medal Award, which was first given in 1937, are well-established on a national level, while others, such as the New Mexico- Arizona Book Award, are more recent and regional in scope. Some awards such as the Caldecott Medal Award, celebrate the illustrations and artwork in picture books. Other picture-book awards honor works that have social or cultural themes. Picture books that have earned the Jane Addams Children’s Book Award, for example, are especially noteworthy because they are intended to promote peace and social justice (Friess, 2014; Montelongo et al., 2015). One award that is particularly relevant to speakers of Spanish who

awards, such as the Caldecott Medal Award, which was first given in 1937, are established on a national level, while others, such as the New Mexico- Arizona Book Award, are more recent and regional in scope. Some awards such as the Caldecott Medal Award, celebrate the illustrations and artwork book awards honor works that have social or cultural themes. Picture books that have earned the Jane Addams Children’s Book Award, for example, are especially noteworthy because they are intended to promote peace and social justice (Friess, 2014; Montelongo et al., 2015). One award that is particularly relevant to speakers of Spanish who

One award that is particularly relevant to speakers of Spanish who are learning English is the Américas Book Award because of the multicul-

Did you know? Teachers can search the

such as the Caldecott Medal Award, celebrate the illustrations and artwork Cognate Companion database for picture books, snap-on lesson plans, and cognate vocabulary to use in their content-area instruction. One award that is particularly relevant to speakers of Spanish who

are learning English is the Américas Book Award because of the multicultural picture books that authentically portray Latinos in the United States and Latin America (Montelongo et al., 2018). It is sponsored by the Consortium of Latin American Studies Programs

(Montelongo et al., 2018). It is sponsored by the Consortium of Latin American Studies Programs (CLASP). The Association for Library Service to Children (ALSC) also publishes the Pura Belpré Award for writers and illustrators who portray and celebrate Latino culture (Montelongo et al., 2014). The majority of picture books found in the Cognate Companion have earned one or more of the awards in Table 1.1. The Cognate Companion also includes hundreds of picture books listed by professional organizations such as the National Science Teachers Association of America (NSTA) and the Interna-

nizations such as the National Science Teachers Association of America (NSTA) and the International Literacy Association (ILA). Such organizations publish their own lists of exemplary trade books intended for children in preschool through high school. Books such as those found in the Texas 2x2 Reading List, are selected by committees of educators from the Texas Library Association (Montelongo et al., 2014). Those in the ILA’s Teachers’ Choices Reading List are the result of a voting survey of teachers (Montelongo et al., 2014), while the Children’s Choices Book List is compiled from the votes of the children who have read the book (Hernández et al., 2016). Many of the picture books included in the Cognate Companion were drawn from the book lists in Table 1.2. Table 1.1. List of book awards included in the Cognate Companion

Book Awards Subject Matter Age Group

Subject Book Lists Matter Age Group

and teach a cognate-rich vocabulary curriculum (Montelongo et al., 2013). Our analysis of thousands of quality picture books empirically supports the idea that they are a treasure trove of cognates large enough to create a rich cognate vocabulary curriculum. The number of cognates in a picture book varies from book to book. Some picture books have only a few cognates while others have more than 100. For example, winners of the Theodore

have only a few cognates while others have more than 100. For example, winners of the Theodore S.  Geisel Award include titles that have as few as two cognates in a book while others contain more than 80 cognates (Montelongo, 2013). For the more than 140 Teachers’ Choices books we surveyed, the average number is approximately 62 cognates per book (Montelongo & Hernández, 2013). In general, the number of Spanish–English cognates in a picture book written in English is approximately 20 cognates per book, while the number of cognates in a book written in Spanish averaged about 25 (Montelongo et al., 2013). Using the Three-Tiered System to Select Cognates for Instruction

In their two influential books on vocabulary instruction, Beck et  al. (2002; 2008) presented a

Tier Two words are those vocabulary words that (a) are not ordinarily used or heard in everyday language; (b) appear across a variety of content areas; (c) are important for understanding content-area textbooks; and (d) allow for rich representations and connections to other words

everyday language; (b) appear across a variety of content areas; (c) are important for understanding content-area textbooks; and (d) allow for rich representations and connections to other words (Kucan, 2012). Tier Two words may also be thought of as “sophisticated adult words.” Most of these words are cognates borrowed from Latin. The words, “diligent,” “profession,” and “tolerate” are examples of Tier Two words. Beck et al. (2002) suggest that teachers dedicate the majority of their vocabulary instructional time to Tier Two words, many of which are synonyms of

everyday language; (b) appear across a variety of content areas; (c) are important for understandarea textbooks; and (d) allow for rich representations and connections to other words (Kucan, 2012). Tier Two words may also be thought of as “sophisticated adult words.” Most of these words are cognates borrowed from Latin. The words, “diligent,” “profession,” and “tolerate” are examples of Tier Two words. Beck et al. (2002) suggest that teachers dedicate the majority of their vocabulary instructional time to Tier Two words, many of which are synonyms of

ate” are examples of Tier Two words. Beck et al. (2002) suggest that teachers dedicate the majority of their vocabulary instructional time to Tier Two words, many of which are synonyms of basic vocabulary words. Tier Three words are defined as academic vocabulary words that are specific to particular topics in specific disciplines: “oligarchy” (social studies), “pollen” (biology),

basic vocabulary words. Tier Three words are defined as academic vocabulary words that are specific to particular topics in specific disciplines: “oligarchy” (social studies), “pollen” (biology), and “rhomboid” (geometry). As Tier Three words do not usually appear across a variety of texts, their definitions can be explicitly taught when their meanings are necessary for understanding a particular discipline-specific text. Most Tier Three words are also overwhelmingly Spanish– English cognates. Tier One cognates. Tier One cognates are the most common cognate words in picture

basic vocabulary words. Tier Three words are defined as academic vocabulary words that are specific to particular topics in specific disciplines: “oligarchy” (social studies), “pollen” (biology), and “rhomboid” (geometry). As Tier Three words do not usually appear across a variety of texts, their definitions can be explicitly taught when their meanings are necessary for understanding specific text. Most Tier Three words are also overwhelmingly Spanish– Tier One cognates. Tier One cognates are the most common cognate words in picture

English cognates. Tier One cognates. Tier One cognates are the most common cognate words in picture books meant for young readers in the early primary grades. These words are important because

Montelongo, Hernández, and Herter

Table 1.3. Examples of Tier One cognates air/aire escape/escapar lion/león princess/princesa

they can be used to teach bilingual learners about cognates in the early stages of cognate instruc- tion. Examples of Tier One cognates are presented in Table  1.3. Readers will note that many of the words refer to persons and items around the house, things to eat, and animals— mom/mamá, bottle/botella, fa mily/familia, and elephant/elefante— all of them familiar to even the youngest of schoolchildren. Tier Two cognates. Students benefit from direct instruction of Tier Two cognates. As part of the analysis of picture books that led to the formulation of their three-tiered vocabulary system, Beck et al., (2002; 2008) provided lists of suggested Tier Two target vocabulary words for each of the picture books they sampled. An analysis of Tier Two vocabulary in both of the Beck et  al., (2002; 2008) books revealed that more than half (53%) of the words they listed were Spanish– English cognates (Montelongo et al., 2016). The results of this study suggest that literacy experts and teachers examine Tier Two words with a cognate/noncognate classificatory lens. Doing so permits teachers the opportunity to design rich cognate lessons that provide bilingual students with easier and wider access to the academic curriculum. Examples of Tier Two cognates found in the award-winning picture books included in this book and in the Cognate Companion website are presented in Table 1.4. Readers can observe that many of these words are Latinate in origin and are synonyms for Tier One words, which have Old English roots. For example, distant/distante means the same as the English noncognate Tier One word, “far.” Similarly, mend/remendar is a synonym for “fix.” Humorous/humorístico is another way of saying that someone or something is “funny.” Such cases remind us that Tier Two words are often conceptually no more difficult than Tier One words and, therefore, are well within a bilingual learner’s capacity to learn. The difficulty lies in the fact that the bilingual learner does not typically form associations between cognate vocabulary words in their two languages with- out direct instruction. Teachers can design strategically focused lessons to help their students make these kinds of connections. Teachers can find model lesson plans for each of the picture books mentioned in the Cognate Companion. Some Tier Two words, however, are less frequent in spoken language and written text and are more abstract than Tier One words. Cognates such as code/código, enthusiasm/entusiasmo, a nd miser y/miseria have no easy Tier One synonyms and may be conceptually more complicated

Table 1.4. Picture Book Abuela’s Weave Arrowhawk

Braids

George Washington’s Teeth In My Family Journey of the Nightly Jaguar Honeybees Me, Frida

Prietita and the Ghost Woman

Roadrunner’s Dance

The Santero’s Miracle: A Bilingual Story A Season for Mangoes

Sit-in: How Four Friends Stood Up . . . Uncle Rain Cloud

The Power of Cognates for Bilingual Learners

winning picture books Examples of Tier Two Cognate Words commercial/comercial; elaborate/elaborado; intricate/intrincado; rumor/rumor distant/distante; firm/firme; gradually/gradualmente; mend/remendar; remote/remoto; signal/señalar flow/fluir; guide/guía; pause/pausar; prefer/preferir; spicy/especiado; suppose/suponer battle/batalla; fierce/feroz; invade/invadir; secure/seguro; sentinel/centinela briefly/brevemente; constant/constante; culture/cultura; offering/ofrenda; phase/fase ebony/ébano; glorious/glorioso; legend/leyenda; refuge/refugio; species/especie code/código; colony/colonia; flexible/flexible; intruder/intruso; pattern/patrón admire/admirar; annual/anual; contain/contener; elite/élite; entire/entero; ornate/ornamentado cure/curar; examine/examinar; ingredient/ingrediente; intently/atentamente; lagoon/laguna admit/admitir; agile/ágil; convinced/convencido; inhibit/inhibir; sacred/sagrado; timid/tímido aroma/aroma; assure/asegurar; intone/entonar; pale/pálido; pigment/pigmento; pure/puro ancestor/ancestro; concentrate/concentrar; humorous/humorístico; traditional/tradicional accuse/acusar; committee/comité; conviction/convicción; dignity/dignidad alert/alerto; anxious/ancioso; effect/efecto; furious/furioso; innocent/inocente; insist/insistir

Examples of Tier Two words in award-

for many bilingual learners in the early primary grades. Such Tier Two words require direct instruction that is connected to the content-area concept. Tier Three cognates. Many Tier Three words are Spanish–English cognates. This fact is not surprising given that Latin was the language of the academic disciplines. Examples of Tier Three words are shown in Table 1.5. Most of the Tier Three words on the list, such as “cumulus,”

examples of cognates taken from nonscience books: “cubism,” “nonet,” and “troglodyte.” Not surprisingly, the majority of Tier Three words are most often found in picture books for the upper primary students. Teachers can use the three-tiered system for categorizing vocabulary proposed by Beck et al., (2002; 2008) as a guide for selecting cognate words from picture books. Tier One words can

et al., (2002; 2008) as a guide for selecting cognate words from picture books. Tier One words can be used in the primary grades to build young bilingual learners’ conception of cognates, while also building a cognate vocabulary base that will be used throughout their school years. Teachers can devote most of their instruction to Tier Two cognates, while reserving instruction for Tier Three cognates to those instances where the meaning of the word(s) is essential for understanding the text. Parent Education: Awareness of Cognates

Teaching parents about cognates is important because it can help the family maintain Span-

ish, while also reinforcing home-school connections. At many of the schools we visit, Spanishspeaking parents are told by school administrators, counselors, and teachers, that their children should speak only English at school. Because parents want to do what is best for their children, they sometimes restrict or stop speaking Spanish with their children at home. There is no researchbased evidence for this recommendation. Rather, educators who work with bilingual learners need to understand the research demonstrating that students who maintain and strengthen their home languages develop stronger academic language and literacies in English, and demonstrate higher academic achievement in English (Wright, 2019). A focus on cognates can support their student’s/child’s vocabulary development in their two languages. Including Spanish–English cognates as a topic during family literacy nights is an important step in convincing parents and grandparents of the importance of their children maintain-

tant step in convincing parents and grandparents of the importance of their children maintaining and strengthening their Spanish as they acquire English. By demonstrating the similarities between the English and Spanish languages, teachers can do their part to encourage bilingualism for students who already possess such a strong foundation in Spanish, even when the teacher doesn’t speak Spanish. Teachers also can encourage parents to read bilingual books that include cognates to strengthen their students’ metalinguistic understanding of these words. SUMMARY

SUMMARY Spanish–English cognates are an especially powerful category of words that can be introduced

and taught in kindergarten through sixth grade for students at all levels of English and Spanish proficiency. These cognates entered into the English language as a result of the complex historical interactions between the peoples who spoke Latinate languages and the peoples who spoke Germanic languages. Today’s English language is comprised of a high-frequency Germanic component and Latin-based academic vocabulary. Teachers at all literacy levels in English and Spanish can provide their bilingual learners with access to academic language across all grades and disciplines through cognates. The rich

REFLECTION AND ACTION

1 What are the benefits of cognate study for Spanish–English bilingual students? 2 In what ways do cognates facilitate the acquisition of bilingual fluency?

3 How can cognate study enhance the vocabulary development of the bilingual learners

in your class? 4 Use the Cognate Companion to find award-winning picture books appropriate for

your grade level. How might you incorporate the teaching of cognates into your lesson plans using these books?

/awardsgrants/bookmedia/belpremedal Association for Library Service to Children (ALSC). (2016). Theodor Seuss Geisel Award. http://www.ala.org /a lsc/awa rdsg ra nts/ bookmedia /geiselawa rd/geiselabout Baker, C. (2011). Foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism. Multilingual Matters. Baugh, A., & Cable, T. (2012). A history of the English language (6th ed). Pearson. Beck, I., & McKeown, M. G. (2007). Increasing young low-income children’s oral vocabulary repertoires through rich and focused instruction. The Elementary School Journal, 107, 251–271. Beck, I., McKeown, M. G., & Kucan, I. (2002). Bringing words to life. Guilford Press. Beck, I., McKeown, M. G., & Kucan, I. (2008). Creating robust vocabulary: Frequently asked questions and extended examples. Guilford Press. Beeman, K., & Urow, C. (2013). Teaching for biliteracy: Strengthening bridges between languages. Caslon. Bialystok, E. (2001). Metalinguistic aspects of bilingual processing. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 21, 169–181. Bialystok, E. (2007). Acquisition of literacy in bilingual children: A framework for research. Language Learning, 57(1), 4 4 –7 7. Biemiller, A. (2001). Teaching vocabulary, early, direct, and sequential. American Educator. http://www.aft.org /periodical/american-educator/spring-2001/teaching-vocabulary Biemiller, A., & Boote, C. (2006). An effective method for building meaning vocabulary in primary grades. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 44–62. Brinton, L., & Arnovick, L. (2006). The English language: A linguistic history. Oxford University Press. Carver, C. (1991). A history of English in its own words. HarperCollins. Consortium of Latin American Studies Programs (CLASP). (2016). America’s Book Award. http://claspprograms .org/americasaward Corson, D. (1997). The learning and use of academic English words. Language Learning, 47, 671–718. Coxhead, A. (2000). A new academic word list. TESOL Quarterly, 34(2), 213–238. Cummins, J. (1981). The role of primary language development in promoting educational success for language minority students. In Schooling and language minority students: A framework (pp. 16-60). California State Office of Education, Office of Bilingual Bicultural Education. Evaluation and Dissemination and Assessment Center, California State University. Cummins, J. (2005). A proposal for action: Strategies for recognizing heritage language competence as a learning resource within the mainstream classroom. The Modern Language Journal, 89, 585–592. De Groot, A. M. B., & Keijzer, R. (2000). What is hard to learn is easy to forget: The roles of word concreteness, cognate status, and word frequency in foreign language learning and forgetting. Language Learning, 50(1), 1–56. De Groot, A. M. B., & Nas, G. L. J. (1991). Lexical representation of cognates and noncognates in compound bilinguals. Journal of Memory and Language, 30, 90–123. Dickinson, D. K., & Smith, M. W. (1994). Long-term effects of preschool teachers’ book readings on lowincome children’s vocabulary and story comprehension. Reading Research Quarterly, 29, 105–122. Dutro S., & Moran, C. (2002). Rethinking English language instruction: An architectural approach. In Gilbert Garcia (Ed.), English learners: Reaching the highest level of English literacy (pp. 1-44). International Readers Association. Elley, W. E. (1989). Vocabulary acquisition from listening to stories. Reading Research Quarterly, 24, 174 –187. Escamilla, K., Hopewell, S., Butvilofsky, S., Sparrow, W., Soltero-Gonzalez, L., Ruiz-Figueroa, O., & Escamilla, M. (2014). Biliteracy from the Start: Literacy Squared in action. Caslon/Brookes Publishing. Fisher, D., Flood, J., Lapp, D., & Frey, N. (2004). Interactive read-alouds: Is there a common set of implementation practices? Reading Teacher, 58(1), 8 –17.

New Mexico Journal of Reading, 34(1), 30–34. Gómez de Silva, G. (1998). Breve diccionario etimológico de la lengua española: 10,000 artículos, 1,300 familias de palabras (2nd ed.). Fondo de Cultura Económica. Helman, L. (2016). Literacy development with English learners: Research-based instruction in grades K-6 (2nd ed.). Guilford. Hernández, A. C. (2001). The expected and unexpected literacy outcomes of bilingual students. Bilingual Research Journal, 25(3), 251–276. Hernández, A. C., & Montelongo, J. A. (2018). Word study with Spanish–English cognates. In Kathy Ganske (Ed.), Word sorts and more: Sound, pattern, and meaning explorations K-3 (pp. 81–93). Guilford. Hernández, A. C., Montelongo, J. A., Delgado, R., Holguin, R., & Carmona, L. (2014). Strengthening vocabulary instruction for Latino English learners: Cognate word walls and anchor charts. New Mexico Journal of Reading, 34(2), 36–40. Hernández, A. C., Montelongo, J. A., & Herter, R. J. (2016). Crossing linguistic borders in the classroom: Moving beyond English-only to tap rich linguistic resources. In B. Couture & P. Wojahn (Eds.), Crossing borders, drawing boundaries: The rhetoric of lines across America (pp. 93–110). University Utah Press. Hernández, A. C., Montelongo, J. A., Minjarez, P., & Oblack, A. (2011). English-Spanish cognate phenomena in a fourth-grade classroom. The New Mexico Journal of Reading, 32, 7–11. Hickey, P. J., & Lewis, T. (2013). The common core, English learners, and morphology 101: Unpacking LS.4 for ELLs. The Language and Literacy Spectrum, 23, 69–84. Holmes, J., & Guerra Ramos, R. (1995). False friends and reckless guessers: Observing cognate recognition strategies. In T. Huskins, M. Haunes, J. Coady (Eds.), Second language reading and vocabulary learning (pp. 86–108). Ablex. Hopkins, M. (2012). Arizona’s teacher policies and their relationship with English learner instructional practice. Language Policy, 11(1), 81–99. Jane Addams Peace Association. (2016). Jane Addams children’s book award. http://www.janeaddamspeace .org/jacba/ Jiménez, R. T. (1997). The strategic reading abilities of five low-literacy Latino readers in middle school. Reading Research Quarterly, 32, 224–243. Jiménez, R. T., & Gámez, A. (1996). Literature-based cognitive strategy instruction for middle school Latino students. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 40, 84–91. Johnston, M. C. (1941). Spanish-English cognates of high frequency. Modern Language Journal, 25, 4 05 – 417. Kindle, K. J. (2009). Vocabulary development during read-alouds: Primary practices. The Reading Teacher, 63, 202–211. Kucan, L. (2012). What is most important to know about vocabulary? The Reading Teacher, 65(6), 360–366. Library of Congress. (n.d.) WorldCat. www.worldcat.org Lubliner, S., & Hiebert, E. H. (2011). An analysis of English-Spanish cognates as a source of general academic language. Bilingual Research Journal, 34, 76–93. Means, T. (2003). Instant Spanish Vocabulary Builder. Hippocrene Books. Moll, L. C., Amanti, C., Neff, D., & Gonzalez, N. (1992). Funds of knowledge for teaching: Using a qualitative approach to connect homes and classrooms. Theory into Practice, 31(2), 132–141. Montelongo, J. A. (2002). Concept learning and memory for Spanish-English cognates [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. New Mexico State University. Montelongo, J. A. (2010). Library instruction and Spanish-English cognate recognition. Teacher Librarian, 38, 32–36. Montelongo, J. A. (2012). Spanish-English cognates and the Dewey Decimal System. The California Reader, 45, 11–16. Montelongo, J. A. (2013). Online cognate databases for picture book read-alouds to Latino ELLs. School Library Monthly, 30, 35 –37. Montelongo, J. A. (2013). The Tomas Rivera Book Award and a cognate database. The New Mexico Journal of Reading, 34(1), 35–40. Montelongo, J. A., Durán, R., & Hernández, A. C. (2013). English-Spanish cognates in picture books: Toward a vocabulary curriculum for Latino ELLs. Bilingual Research Journal, 36(2), 244–259. Montelongo, J. A., Freiss, S., Hernández, A. C., & Herter, R. (2015). Reading the word and the world: Cognates and the Jane Addams Award picture books: Social justice for Latino ELLs. Learning and Teaching, 8(1), 5 –17. Montelongo, J. A., & Hernández, A. C. (2007). Reinforcing expository reading and writing skills: A more versatile sentence completion task. The Reading Teacher, 60(6), 538–546. Montelongo, J. A., & Hernández, A. C. (2013). The Teachers’ Choices cognate database for K-3 teachers of Latino ELLs. The Reading Teacher, 67(3), 187–192.

Montelongo, J. A., Hernández, A. C., Esquivel, J., Serrano-Wall, F., & Goenaga Ruiz de Zuasu, A. (2018). Teaching English-Spanish cognate-recognition strategies through the Américas Book Award-winners and honor picture books. Journal of Latinos and Education, 17(4), 300–313. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080 /15348431.2017.1348299 Montelongo, J. A., Hernández, A. C., Goenaga, A., Esquivel, J., Serrano-Wall, F., Plaza, M., Madrid, I., & Campos, I., (2015). The cognates in the Beck, McKeown, and Kucan tier two word lists. New Mexico Journal of Reading, 35(3), 21–25. Montelongo, J. A., Hernández, A. C., & Herter, R. J. (2011). Identifying Spanish-English cognates to scaffold instruction for Latino ELs. The Reading Teacher, 65, 161–164. Montelongo, J. A., Hernández, A. C., & Herter, R. J. (2013). A database of the English-Spanish cognates in the California Young Reader Medal Books. The California Reader, 47(1), 32–36. Montelongo, J. A., Hernández, A. C., & Herter, R. J. (2014). English-Spanish cognates and the Pura Belpré children’s award books: Reading the word and the world. Multicultural Perspectives, 16(3), 170–177. Montelongo, J. A., Hernández, A. C., Herter, R. J., & Cuello, J. (2011). Using cognates to scaffold context clue strategies for Latino ELs. The Reading Teacher, 64, 429–434. Morgan, H. (2009). Picture book biographies for young children: A way to teach multiple perspectives. Early Childhood Education Journal, 37, 219 –227. Nagy, W. E., García, G. E., Durgunogulu, A. Y., & Hancin-Bhatt, B. (1993). Spanish-English bilingual students’ use of cognates in English reading. Journal of Reading Behavior, 25, 241–258. Nash, R. (1997). NTCs dictionary of Spanish cognates thematically organized. McGraw Hill. National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS). (2016). Notable social studies trade books for young people. http://www.socialstudies.org/notable National Governors Association Center for Best Practices, Council of Chief State School Officers (2010). Common core state standards: English language arts. National Governors Association Center for Best Practices, Council of Chief State School Officers. National Science Teachers Association of America (NSTA). (2016). Outstanding science trade books for students K–12. http://www.nsta.org/publications/ostb/ostb2016.aspx Real Academia Española. (2002). Diccionario de la lengua Española de la Real Academia. Real Academia Española. Renaissance Learning. (2016). AR bookfinder. http://www.arbookfind.com/default.aspx Side, R. (1990). Phrasal verbs: Sorting them out. English Language Teaching Journal, 44(2), 144–152. Templeton, S. (2012). Teaching and learning morphology: A reflection on generative vocabulary instruction. Journal of Education, 192(2/3), 101–107. Templeton, S., Bear, D., Johnson, F., & Invernizzi, M. (2010). Vocabulary their way: Word study with middle and secondary students. Pearson. Valencia, R. (2010). Dismantling contemporary deficit thinking: Educational thought practice. Routledge. Vozza, H. C. (2018). Vocabulary strategies and cognate literacy instruction for secondary students: An experimental Spanish-English cognate intervention study (Order No. 10983806). Available from Dissertations & Theses @ New Mexico State University; ProQuest Dissertations & Theses A&I. (2101486080). WordReference.com. (n.d.). Oxford Spanish dictionary. http://www.wordreference.com/english_spanish _dictiona r y.asp Wright, W. (2019). Foundations for teaching English language learners: Research, policy, and practice. Caslon.

Children’s Literature References

Children’s Literature References

Ahmed, R. (2018). Mae among the stars. HarperCollins. Alarcón, F. (2008). In animal poems of the iguazú/Animalario de iguazú. Children’s Book Press. Alarcón, F. (2011). Poems to dream together. Lee & Low Books. Anderson, B. (2020). Lizzy demands a seat: Elizabeth Jennings fights for streetcar rights. Calkins Creek. Aston, D. (2014). A seed is sleepy. Chronicle Books. Aston, D. (2015). A butterfly is patient. Chronicle Books. Bardoe, C. (2015). Gregor Mendel: The friar who grew peas. Abrams Books for Young Readers. Bardoe, C. (2018). Nothing stopped Sophie: The story of the unshakable mathematician Sophie Germain. Little, Brown Books for Young Readers. Barnes, D. (2017). Crown: An ode to the fresh cut. Agate Bolden. Berne, J. (2013). On a Beam of Light: A Story of Albert Einstein. Chronicle Books. Bishop, N. (2009). Nic Bishop: Butterflies and moths. Scholastic Nonfiction. Brown, D. (2008). Odd boy out: Young Albert Einstein. Clarion Books. Brown, M. (2010). Side by side: The story of Dolores Huerta and César Chávez/Lado a lado: La historia de Dolores Huerta y César Chávez. HarperCollins Español. Browne, M. (2020). Woke: A young poet’s call to justice. Roaring Brook Press. Cherry, L. (2003). How groundhog’s garden grew. Blue Sky Press. Chin-Lee, C. & de la Peña, T. (1999). A is for the Américas. Orchard Books. Christensen, B. (2012). I, Galileo. Knopf Books for Young Readers. Clinton, C. (2017). She persisted: 13 American women who changed the world. Philomel Books. Davies, N. (2016). Tiny creatures: The world of microbes. Candlewick. Davies, N. (2020). Grow: Secrets of our DNA. Candlewick. Demi. (2018). Marie Curie. Henry Holt and Co. Denise, A. (2019). Planting stories: The life of librarian and storyteller Pura Belpre. HarperCollins. Dobell, D. (2020). The world of whales: Get to know the giants of the ocean. Little Gestalten. Drummond, A. (2017). Pedal power: How one community became the bicycle capital of the world. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Eggers, D. (2017). Her right foot. Chronicle Books. English, K. (2005). Speak English for us Marisol. Albert Whitman & Co. Ernst, L. (2006). The gingerbread girl. Dutton Books for Young Readers. Ferris, J. (2015). Noah Webster and his words. Clarion Books. Flint, K. (2019). The Butterfly House. Frances Lincoln Children’s Books. Franklin, A. (2019). Not quite Snow White. HarperCollins. Galbraith, K. (2015). Planting the wild garden. Peachtree Publishing Company. Goodman, S. (2016). The first step: How one girl put segregation on trial. Bloomsbury USA Childrens. Heling, K. (2019). Clothesline clues to the first day of school. Charlesbridge. Henkes, K. (2006). Lily’s purple plastic purse. Greenwillow Books. Herrera, L. (2010). La tortilla corredora. Ediciones Ekaré. Jenkins, S., & Page, R. (2015). How to swallow a pig. HMH Books for Young Readers. Jiménez, F. (2000). The Christmas gift/ El regalo de Navidad. HMH Books for Young Readers. Kelly, I. (2007). It’s a butterfly’s life. Scholastic Inc. Kimmel, E. (2016). The runaway tortilla. WestWinds Press. Koontz, R. (2007). What’s the difference between a butterfly and a moth? Picture Window Books. Kraft, B. (2015). The fantastic Ferris wheel: The story of inventor George Ferris. Henry Holt and Co. Krull, K. (2003). Harvesting hope: The story of César Chávez. HMH Books for Young Readers. Krull, K. (2014). The story of Philo Farnsworth. Dragonfly Books. Krull, K. (2021). No truth without Ruth: The life of Ruth Bader Ginsburg. Quill Tree Book. Lactman, O. D. (1995). Pepita speaks twice. Arte Publico Press.

Lasky, K. (1994). The librarian who measured the earth. Little Brown Books.

Lawlor, L. (2014). Rachel Carson and her book that changed the world. Holiday House. Lerner, C. (2002). Butterflies in the garden. HarperCollins. Levinson, C. (2017). The youngest marcher: The story of Audrey Faye Hendricks, a young civil rights activist. Atheneum Books for Young Readers. Lomas-Garza, C. (1999). Magic windows/Ventanas mágicas. Children’s Book Press. Lukoff, K. (2019). When Aidan became a brother. Lee & Low Books. Luna, J. (2010). The runaway piggie/El cochinito fugitivo. Piñata Books. Maillard, K. N. (2019). Fry Bread: A Native American family story. Roaring Book Press. McCully, E. (2007). The escape of Oney Judge: Martha Washington’s slave finds freedom. Farrar. Messner, K. (2017). Up in the garden and down in the dirt. Chronicle Books. Miller, D. (2003). Are trees alive? Bloomsbury USA Childrens. Miller, P. (2016). The hole story of the doughnut. Clarion Books. Mortensen, L. (2019). Away with words: The daring story of Isabella Bird. Peachtree Publishing Company. Most, B. (2003). The cat that went oink. HMH Books for Young Readers. Muñoz Ryan, P. (1996). The Crayon counting book. Charlesbridge. Muñoz Ryan, P. (2002). When Marian sang: The true recital of Marian Anderson. Scholastic. Murray, L. (2011). The Gingerbread Man on the loose in the school. G.P. Putnam’s Sons Books for Young Readers. Myers, W. (2021). Frederick Douglas: The lion who wrote history. Quill Tree Books. Nivola, C. (2012). Life in the ocean: The story of oceanographer Sylvia Earle. Farrar. Pattison, D. (2019). Darwin’s 130-year predication. Mims House. Pérez, A. (2009). My diary from here to there/Mi diario de aquí hasta allá. Children’s Book Press. Pinkney, A. (2010). Sit-in: How four friends stood up by sitting down. Little, Brown Books for Young Readers. Rappaport, D. (2020). Ruth objects: The life of Ruth Bader Ginsburg. Little, Brown Books for Young Readers. Rhuday-Perkovich, O. (2018). Someday is now: Clara Luper and the 1958 sit-ins. Seagrass Press. Robinson, F. (2016). Ada’s ideas: The story of the first computer programmer. Abrams Books for Young Readers. Robinson, F. (2019). The bluest of blues: Anna Atkins and the first book of photography. Abrams Books for Young Readers. Rockwell, A. (2015). Bugs are insects. HarperCollins. Roth, S., & Trumbore, C. (2018). The mangrove tree: Planting trees to feed families. Lee & Low Books. Roy, K. (2017). How to be an elephant. David Macaulay Studio. Rusch, E. (2019). Mario and the hole in the sky: How a chemist saved our planet. Charlesbridge. Salas, L. (2019). Lion of the sky: Haiku for all seasons. Millbrook Press. Schories, P. (1996). Over under in the garden. Farrar Straus & Giroux. Seluk, N. (2018). The sun is kind of a big deal. Orchard Books. Shetterly, M., & Freeman, L. (2018). Hidden figures: The true story of four black women and the space race. HarperCollins. Siy, A. (2011). Bug shots: The good, the bad, and the bugly. Holiday House. Skármeta, A. (2003). The composition. Groundwood Books. Squires, J. (2006). The gingerbread cowboy. Scholastic. Steig, W. (1969). Sylvester and the magic pebble. Simon & Schuster Books for Young Reader. Tonatiuh, D. (2013). Pancho rabbit and the coyote: A migrant’s tale. Harry N. Abrams. Tonatiuh, D. (2017). Danza!: Amalia Hernández and El Ballet Folklórico de México. Harry N. Abrams. Warren, S. (2012). Dolores Huerta: A hero to migrant workers. Two Lions. Winter, J. (2019) Thurgood. Anne Schwartz Books. Yaccarino, D. (2012). The fantastic undersea life of Jacques Cousteau. Dragonfly Books. Zoehfeld, K. (2012). Secrets of the garden: Food chains and the food web in our backyard. Dragonfly Books.

include teacher dialogues in classrooms, and sophisticated Tier 2 and Tier 3 vocabulary found in content area textbooks. Bilingual, bilingualism. Knowledge of two languages, which can include listening and speaking,

Bilingual, bilingualism. Knowledge of two languages, which can include listening and speaking, but can also refer to an individual’s reading and writing skills in two languages. There are varying degrees of bilingualism. Bilingual learners. Students who use two languages in their everyday lives and draw on both

of those languages for learning in English-medium and bilingual contexts. This includes students from Spanish-speaking homes who are learning English as a new language at school, simultaneous bilinguals who have used both languages since early childhood, and students from English-speaking homes who are learning Spanish in dual language programs. Biliteracy. The ability to read and write in two languages.

Concept induction. A form of indirect learning by using a guided approach to teaching, such as

the use of questions to facilitate a student to acquire a new skill, concept, or process. Cognates. Words in two languages that: 1) share the same meaning, 2) have identical or similar

spelling, and 3) share the same etymology. Cognate recognition skills. Ability to perceive cognate vocabulary while listening, speaking,

cognate in speaking or writing. Context clues. In reading, hints about the meaning of an unknown word from surrounding text.

Context clues strategies. Skill or plan to problem-solve the meaning of an unknown word by

content areas where the goal is bilingualism and biliteracy. There are various models of dual language classrooms. There are classrooms that start with 90% Spanish and 10% English and by fourth grade move to 50% Spanish and 50% English. There are 50–50 dual language classrooms, which maintain 50% Spanish and 50% English throughout the grade levels. Some programs use other primary languages such as Mandarin, Japanese, or Portuguese. English learners (ELs) or English language learners (ELLs). Official designation for students

who are acquiring English as a new (second or third, additional) language.

Glossary

Spanish and possess the same or nearly the same meanings in both languages as a result of a shared etymology— the origin of a word and the historical development of its meaning. ESL. The acronym for English as a second language, used to identify programs, classes, and

teachers for students who are officially designated as in need of learning to speak, read, and write English. Etymology. The study of word origins and its changes in meaning throughout its history.

Dictionaries contain the etymology or origin of the word. Many academic English words originated from the Latin and Greek languages. Spanish is a Latinate language, which means many of its words originated from Latin. Home–school connection. An activity or task that involves the child and family meaningfully

and collaboratively in the child’s education. In some cases, the child consults with the family to find out about funds of knowledge, or sources of linguistic and cultural knowledge found in home and community practices that can be used for school learning. Heuristic. An approach to problem solving, to figure out how to learn on one’s own or how to use

a model to learn a new concept or process. Metalinguistic awareness. Ability to think about language and its patterns (Bialystok, 2001).

Morphology. In linguistics, it is the study of the structure and meaning of words and word parts.

Prefixes, root words, and suffixes are parts of words or morphemes that carry meaning and combine to make new words. Opportunity gap. Recognition that not all individuals are born with the same resources and

opportunities and hence a discrepancy in life chances and school achievement are evident. See Carter and Welner (2013). Prefix. In linguistics, a word part found in front of a root word and that carries meaning. For

Prefix. In linguistics, a word part found in front of a root word and that carries meaning. For example, “bi-” means two, in such words as “bicycle” and “bilingual” in English. There are a number of cognate prefixes, such as /bi-/ in English is also /bi-/ in Spanish, in such cognate pairs as bicycle/bicicleta, and bilingual/bilingüe. Root word. In linguistics, it is the basic part of a word that carries meaning. A root word has no

affixes (prefixes or suffixes). For example, the root word “-ceed-,” which means to move forward in English, is the same as «-ceder-» in Spanish, as in the cognate pair proceed/proceder. Scope and sequence. In textbooks, the scope is the organization of the concepts, topics, and

skills. The sequence is the order in which those concepts, topics, and skills are presented. Snap-on cognate lesson plan. A brief cognate lesson plan to accompany an award-winning

picture book that can be integrated into content-area instruction. Each snap-on lesson plan includes cognate objectives, activities, and assessments. Suffix. In linguistics, a word part attached to the end of root words and that carries meaning.

require teacher instruction as to their meanings. The majority of these most frequent words are Old English in origin and are usually not English–Spanish cognates.

2. appear across a variety of content areas; 3) are important for understanding content-area textbooks; and 4) allow for rich representations and connections to other words (Kucan, 2012). Most of these Tier 2 words are cognates derived from Latin, as in the cognate pairs analyze/ analizar and factor/factor. The Coxhead Academic Words are Tier 2 and many are also cognates. Tier Three words. Vocabulary words that are used for particular topics in specific disciplines:

“oligarchy” (social studies), “pollen” (biology), and “rhomboid” (geometry). Tier 3 words can be explicitly taught when their meanings are necessary for understanding a particular disciplinespecific text. Most Tier 3 words are Spanish–English cognates, as in the cognate pairs oligarchy/ oligarquía, pollen/polen, and rhomboid/rhomboidal.

Index

A Is for the Américas (Chin Lee & de la Peña, 1999), 90 Cognate-circling task, 46–47, 46f

Academic vocabulary, 3, 5–6 Academic Word List, 5 Ada’s Ideas: The Story of the World’s First Computer Programmer (Robinson, 2016), 72 Américas Book Award, 10, 10t Analogy exercise, 97, 98f Anchor charts, cognate, 24, 76–77, 77f Animal Poems of the Iguazú/Animalario de Iguazú (Alarcón & González, 2008), 88 Antonyms, cognate, 28–29 Appositive words, cognate, 30–31 Are Trees Alive? (Miller, 2003), 13t, 104 Association for Library Services to Children, 10 Away with Words: The Daring Story of Isabella Bird (Mortensen, 2019), 138–139

Bilingual learners, 2 opportunity gap for, 7 teaching about prefixes to, 55–59 using cognates to decipher meaning of
unfamiliar words, 6 using picture books to engage, 36–37 Bilingual texts, 1 Biliteracy, 7 Bluest of Blues: Anna Atkins and the First Book of Photography, The (Robinson, 2019), 137 Boy Who Invented TV: The Story of Philo Farnsworth, The (Krull, 2014), 88 Bug Shots: The Good, the Bad, and the Bugly (Sly, 2011), 56 Bugs Are Insects (Rockwell, 2015), 53 Butterflies in the Garden (Lerner, 2022), 122–124, 123t Butterfly House, The (Flint, 2019), 122–124, 123t Butterfly is Patient, A (Aston, 2015), 122–124, 123t

California Young Reader Medal, 10t Charlotte Zolotow Award, 10t Children’s Choices Book List, 10 Christmas Gift/El regalo de Navidad, The (Jiménez, 2000), 128 Clothesline Clues to the First Day of School
(Heling, 2019), 53 Cognate Companion, 2 cognate lesson planning using, 102–103 Find-a-Cognate database, 22 picture books in, 10–11, 10–11t, 103 prefixes in, 53, 55 root words in, 52 suffixes in, 71

Cognate-circling task, 46–47, 46f Cognate Play activities content-area thematic units, 115 designing introductory cognate unit of instruction, 131 introducing students to cognates, 17 introductory activity, 1 lesson planning, 101 prefixes and root words, 49 spelling rules, 81 suffixes, 67 using picture book read-alouds to teach cognates, 35 Cognate thematic unit, fourth-grade, 132–142 consonant digraphs /ph/ and /th/, 140–141 double consonant rule in, 138–139 initial sibilant consonant blends, 139–140 prefixes in, 135–137 root words in, 137–138 suffixes in, 138 ubiquity of cognates and, 133–135, 134t unit test for, 141 Cognates, 2–3 academic vocabulary, 3, 5–6 background knowledge and, 6–7 classroom use of, 3–4 as context clues, 18, 25–32 creating thematic unit on Spanish–English, 132–142 defined, 3 distinguished from translations, 22–23 example of, 1 history of, 4–5, 4f importance of teaching, 5–7, 18 Bug Shots: The Good, the Bad, and the Bugly (Sly, 2011), 56 parent education on, 14 recognition and generation skills with, 3 Butterflies in the Garden (Lerner, 2022), 122–124, 123t state standards and, 6 teaching strategies for (see Teaching strategies for introducing cognates) three-tiered system to select, 11–14, 12t, 13t Common Core standards, 6 Composition, The (Skármeta, 2003), 38–40 Concept induction, 19–20 in first-grade class, 20–22 teaching suffix rules through, 72–74 Consonant digraph rule, 87–93, 89t, 92f, 140–141 exceptions to, 92–93 informal assessment of, 91–92, 92f /ph/ and /th/, 90–91, 140–141 Consortium of Latin American Studies Programs, 10 Content-area thematic units biographies of scientists (fourth-grade), 124–127, 125t butterflies (third-grade), 122–124, 123t

biographies of scientists (fourth-grade), 124–127, 125t butterflies (third-grade), 122–124, 123t creation of, 132–141 garden (first-grade), 117–120, 118t The Gingerbread Man (second-grade), 120–121, 121t 153 migrant farmworkers (fifth-grade), 127–129, 128t selecting topic or theme for, 116–117 Context clues strategies, 18, 25–26 cognate antonyms, 28–29

cognate antonyms, 28–29 cognate appositive words and phrases, 30–31 cognate examples, 31–32 cognate synonyms, 27–28 deciphering the meaning of unfamiliar words
in texts, 26–27 parenthetical cognates, 29–30 reflecting on, 32 Crayon Counting Book, The (Muñoz Ryan, 1996), 53 Crown: An Ode to the Fresh Cut (Barnes, 2017), 133–135, 134t

México (Tonatiuh, 2017), 84 Deciphering meanings of unfamiliar words, 26–27 using prefixes and root words, 52–54 Dictionary exercises, 41–42 bilingual, 43 Dolores Huerta: A Hero to Migrant Workers
(Warren, 2012), 127–128, 128t Double consonant rule, 83–87, 84t, 86f, 138–139 Dual language classrooms, 3

English double consonant rule, 83–87, 84t, 86f, 138–139 exceptions to, 87 informal assessment of, 85–86, 86f English-as-a-second language (ESL) classes, 52 Escape of Oney Judge: Martha Washington’s Slave Finds Freedom, The (McCully, 2007), 74 –75 Etymolog y, 3 Etymology exercises, 41–42 Examples, cognate, 31–32

Ferris, The (Kraft, 2015), 138 Fantastic Undersea Life of Jacques Cousteau, The (Yaccarino, 2012), 125t, 126

The (Yaccarino, 2012), 125t, 126 First Step: How One Girl Put Segregation on Trial, The (Goodman, 2016), 94

Frederick Douglass: The Lion Who Wrote History (Myers, 2021), 72

Generation skills, cognate, 3 Germanic cognate prefixes, 58–59, 58t Germanic suffixes, 75, 75t Gingerbread Cowboy, The (Squires, 2006), 120–121, 121t Gingerbread Man folktale, 120–121, 121t Gingerbread Man on the Loose in the School, The (Murray, 2011), 120–121, 121t

The (Goodman, 2016), 94 Flashcards, 41, 61–62, 62f Frederick Douglass: The Lion Who Wrote History

(Bardoe, 2015), 125–126, 125t Grow: Secrets of Our DNA (Davies, 2020), 52

(Maillard, 2019), 51

Harvesting Hope: The Story of César Chávez/Cosechando Esperanza: La historia de César Chávez (Krull, 2003), 127–128, 128t Her Right Foot (Eggers, 2017), 136 Hidden Figures: The True Story of Four Black Women and the Space Race (Shetterly & Freeman, 2018), 137 History of Spanish-English cognates, 4–5, 4f Hole Story of the Doughnut, The (Miller, 2016),
Crown: An Ode to the Fresh Cut (Barnes, 2017), 133–135, 134t 133–135, 134t How Groundhog’s Garden Grew (Cherry, 2003),
118–119, 118t How to Be an Elephant (Roy, 2017), 84

International Literacy Association, 9, 10, 52 It’s a Butterfly’s Life (Kelly, 2007), 122–124, 123t

Jane Addams Children's Book Award,10,10t

Latin and Greek cognate prefixes, 55, 55–56t Latin and Greek root words, 59, 60t Lesson plans Escape of Oney Judge: Martha Washington’s Slave Finds adapted for different classes, 112 articulating objectives of, 108–110 choosing picture books and cognate for read-aloud, 102 cognate objectives and activities to meet them in, 104 creating pre-reading activities, 110 designed with cognate lesson plan template,
106–112, 107f finding the right picture book for, 103 identifying cognate vocabulary for, 103–104 identifying important information about picture books, 108 objectives to deepen student understanding of cognates, 104–106, 106t snap-on cognate, 2, 104–105 using Cognate Companion for, 102–103 Life in the Ocean: The Story of Oceanographer Sylvia Earle (Nivola, 2012), 125t, 126

Earle (Nivola, 2012), 125t, 126 Lily’s Purple Plastic Purse/Lily y su bolso de plástico morado (Henkes, 2006), 85

morado (Henkes, 2006), 85 Lion of the Sky: Haiku for All Seasons (Salas, 2019), 136 Lizzy Demands a Seat!: Elizabeth Jennings Fights for

Gingerbread Cowboy, The (Squires, 2006), 120–121, 121t Magic Windows/Ventanas mágicas (Lomas-Garza, 1999), 96

1999), 96 Mangrove Tree: Planting Trees to Feed Families, The (Roth and Trumbore, 2021), 104

Streetcar Rights (Anderson, 2020), 61

Mario and the Hole in the Sky: How a Chemist Saved Our Planet (Rusch, 2019), 136–137 Martha Speaks/Martha habla (Meddaugh, 1997), 9 Metalinguistic awareness, 18, 21 Monolingual teachers, 7–8 Morphology, 6 My Diary from Here to the There/Mi diario de aquí hasta allá (Pérez, 2009), 128

New Mexico-Arizona Book Award, 10, 10t Nic Bishop: Butterflies and Moths (Bishop, 2009), 122–124, 123t No Truth Without Ruth: The Life of Ruth Bader Ginsburg (Krull, 2021), 52 Noncognates, 6, 26, 43, 46, 47 Not Quite Snow White (Franklin, 2019), 73–74 Nothing Stopped Sophie: The Story of the Unshakable Mathematician Sophie Germain (Bardoe, 2018), 74

125–126, 125t, 140–141 On a Beam of Light: A Story of Albert Einstein
(Berne, 2013), 136 Opportunity gap, 7 Over Under in the Garden (Schories, 1996), 118, 118t

(Tonatiuh, 2013), 106–112, 107f Parent education on cognates, 14, 77–78 Parenthetical cognates, 29–30 Pedal Power: How One Community Became the Bicycle Capital of the World (Drummond, 2017), 52–53 /Ph/ consonant digraph, 90–91, 140–141 Picture books choosing, 102 in Cognate Companion, 10–11, 10–11t cognate lesson planning using Cognate Companion and, 102–103 cognate prefixes and root words in, 51–52 cognate suffix rules in, 71 finding the right, 103 identifying cognate vocabulary for lessons using, 103–104 identifying important information about, 108 post-reading activities for, 41–47 pre-reading activities for, 37f, 38–40 previewing of, 39–40 reading of, 40 scoping and sequencing, 117–119, 118t, 120–121, 121t, 122, 124–126, 125t, 127–128, 128t, 133–135, 134t, 136–137 sequencing cognate activities for read-aloud, 37–47 teaching cognate vocabulary using, 9 used to engage bilingual learners with cognates, 36–37 Planting Stories: The Life of Librarian and Storyteller Pura Belpré (Denise, 2019), 61 Planting the Wild Garden (Galbraith, 2015), 119 Poems to Dream Together (Alarcón, 2011), 52

Mario and the Hole in the Sky: How a Chemist Saved Our Post-reading activities bilingual dictionary exercises, 43

Mario and the Hole in the Sky: How a Chemist Saved Our Post-reading activities bilingual dictionary exercises, 43 cognate-circling task, 46–47, 46f dictionary and etymology exercises, 41–42 fifth-grade migrant farmworkers unit, 129 first-grade garden unit, 119–120 My Diary from Here to the There/Mi diario de aquí hasta flashcards, 41 fourth-grade cognate thematic unit, 137, 138, 139, 140–142 second-grade Gingerbread Man folktale, 121 National Science Teachers Association of America, 10, 52 sentence completion exercises, 44–46, 45f thesaurus exercises, 43–44 Prefixes, cognate, 6, 50–51 common Latin and Greek, 55, 55–56t No Truth Without Ruth: The Life of Ruth Bader Ginsburg deciphering words using, 52–54 flashcards, 61–62, 62f formation exercises, 63, 64f in fourth-grade cognate thematic unit, 135–137 Germanic, 58–59, 58t in picture books, 51–52 reinforcing the learning of, 61–63, 62–63f, 64t in students’ home language, 51 teaching bilingual learners about, 55–59 teaching the meanings of, 56–57 that are not identical, 57–58 word banks, 61–62 word sorts, 62, 63f see also Root words Pre-reading activities creating, 110 fifth-grade migrant farmworkers unit, 127, 129 fourth-grade cognate thematic unit, 138, 139–140 frontloading the cognate vocabulary, 38–39 previewing the picture book, 39–40 Pedal Power: How One Community Became the Bicycle reading the picture book, 40 Presentation cards, cognate vocabulary, 38–39 Previewing of picture books, 39–40 Pura Belpré Award, 10, 10t Queen of Physics: How Wu Chien Shiung Helped

(Lawlor, 2014), 125t, 126 Read-alouds. See Picture books Recognition skills, cognate, 3

Unlock the Secrets of the Atom (Robeson, 2019), 125–126, 125t

Recognition skills, cognate, 3 Root words, 6, 50–51 deciphering words using, 52–54 flashcards, 61–62, 62f scoping and sequencing, 117–119, 118t, 120–121, 121t, 122, focusing on, 59–61, 60t formation exercises, 63, 64f in fourth-grade cognate thematic unit, 137–138 in picture books, 51–52 used to engage bilingual learners with cognates, 36–37 reinforcing the learning of, 61–63, 62–63f, 64t in students’ home language, 51 word banks, 61–62 word sorts, 62, 63f see also Prefixes, cognate

120–121, 121t Runaway Tortilla, The (Kimmel, 2016), 120–121, 121t

Scoping and sequencing of picture books for fifth-grade thematic unit on migrant farmworkers, 127–128, 128t for first-grade thematic unit on gardens, 117–119, 118t for fourth-grade thematic unit on biographies of scientists, 124–126, 125t for introductory cognate unit of instruction,
133–135, 134t for prefixes, 136–137 for root words, 137–138 for second-grade thematic unit on The Gingerbread Man, 120–121, 121t for third-grade thematic unit on butterflies, 122 Secrets of the Garden: Food Chains and the Food Web in Our Backyard (Zoehfield, 2012), 118–119, 118t Seed Is Sleepy, A (Aston, 2014), 118, 118t Seeds Move (Page, 2019), 104 Sentence completion exercises, 44–46, 47f Sequencing, cognate activities, 37, 37f post-reading activities, 41–47 pre-reading activities to build interest, 37f, 38–40 She Persisted: 13 American Women Who Changed the World/Ella persistió: 13 mujeres americanas que cambiaron el mundo (Clinton, 2017), 71 Sibilant consonant blend rules, 93–97, 94t, 96f dual nature of, 96–97 fourth-grade cognate thematic unit, 139–140 informal assessment of, 95, 96f Side by Side/Lado a lado: The Story of Dolores Huerta and César Chávez/La historia de Dolores Huerta y César Chávez (Brown, 2010), 1 Sit-in: How Four Friends Stood Up by Sitting Down (Pickney, 2010), 44–45 Snap-on cognate lesson plans, 2, 104–105 Someday Is Now: Clara Luper and the 1958 Sit-Ins (Rhuday-Perkovich, 2018), 139–140 Spelling bees, 97 Spelling rules analogy exercise, 97, 98f cognate, 82–83 consonant digraph rule, 87–93, 89t, 92f, 140–141 effects of cognate instruction, 82 English double consonant, 83–87, 84t, 86f, 138–139 reinforcing the learning of, 97, 98f sibilant consonant blend rules, 93–97, 94t,
96f, 139–140 Spanish and English, 82 spelling bees, 97 teaching, 83–97 word walls, 97 Standards, language arts, 6, 25 Suffixes, 6, 67 concept-induction and, 72–74 English and Spanish rules for, 69–70, 69t, 70f English and Spanish rules for converting, 71–75

in fourth-grade cognate thematic unit, 138 generating cognates using rules of, 74–75 generative nature of language and, 68–71, 68t Germanic, 75, 75t introducing parents to, 77–78 for fifth-grade thematic unit on migrant farmworkers, picture books and, 71 reinforcing the learning of, 75–78, 76f, 77f selecting a rule for, 72 teaching the rules for, 70–71 using anchor charts to reinforce rules of, 76–77, 77f Sun Is Kind of a Big Deal, The (Seluk, 2018), 104 Sylvester and the Magic Pebble/Silvestre y la piedrecita mágica (Steig, 1969), 72–73 Synonyms, cognate, 27–28

concept-induction and, 72–74 English and Spanish rules for, 69–70, 69t, 70f English and Spanish rules for converting, 71–75

Synonyms, cognate, 27-28

Secrets of the Garden: Food Chains and the Food Web in incorporating cognates in their lessons, 8–14 monolingual, 7–8 Teachers’ Choices Reading List, 10, 11 Teaching English to Speaker of Other Language (TESOL), 7 Teaching strategies for introducing cognates concept induction in, 19–22 as context clues, 18, 24–32 for distinguishing cognates from translations, 22–23 in first-grade class, 20–22 reinforcing and demonstrating learning, 21–22 for reinforcing concept of a cognate, 23–24 Texas 2x2 Reading List, 10 /Th/ digraph, 90–91, 140–141 Theodore S. Geisel Award, 11 Thesaurus exercises, 43–44 Three-tiered system, 11–14, 12t, 13t Thurgood (Winter, 2019), 72 Tiny Creatures: The World of Microbes
(Davies, 2016), 53 Translations distinguished from cognates, 22–23

104, 118–119, 118t

(Koontz, 2007), 122–124, 123t When Marian Sang: The True Recital of Marian Anderson (Muñoz Ryan, 2002), 53–54 Woke: A Young Poet’s Call to Justice (Browne, 2020), 54 Word banks, 61–62 Word searches, 24, 25f Word sorts, 23, 23f, 37f, 41, 62, 62f, 63f Word walls, 24, 26f, 97 World of Whales: Get to Know the Giants of the Ocean, The (Dobell, 2020), 51–52

Young Civil Rights Activist, The (Levenson, 2017), 54