## Dyslexia, Dysgraphia, OWL LD, and Dyscalculia #### Lessons from Science and Teaching ##### Second Edition by **Virginia W. Berninger, Ph.D.** University of Washington Seattle and ##### Beverly J. Wolf, M.Ed. Slingerland ® Institute for Literacy Bellevue, Washington ### Contents ##### I Translation Science: Situating the Present in the Past and Future for Specific Learning Disabilities ... 1 1 Historical Context for Current Issues in Specific Learning Disabilities ... 3 2 Current and Future Directions in Defining and Differentiating Specific Learning Disabilities ... 19 ##### II Translating Research Lessons into Teaching Tips for Developing Students K–12 ... 27 3 Assessment–Instruction Links for Handwriting ... 29 Appendix 3A Assessment of Handwriting and Related Skills ... 52 Appendix 3B Instructional Resources for Handwriting and Related Skills ... 55 Appendix 3C Teacher Resources for Reaching Out to Parents About Handwriting and Related Skills ... 58 4 Assessment–Instruction Links for Word Reading/Spelling and Related Language Processes ... 61 Appendix 4A Assessment of Word Reading, Spelling, and Related Skills ... 84 Appendix 4B Instructional Resources for Word Reading, Spelling, and Related Skills ... 88 Appendix 4C Instructional Programs Developed for Students with Word Reading and Spelling Disabilities ... 91 Appendix 4D Teacher Resources for Word Reading and Spelling ... 93 5 Assessment–Instruction Links for Listening and Reading Comprehension and Oral and Written Language Expression ... 99 Appendix 5A Assessment of Listening and Reading Comprehension, Oral and Written Expression, and Related Skills ... 128 Appendix 5B Instructional Resources for Listening and Reading Comprehension, Oral and Written Expression, and Related Skills at the Vocabulary, Syntax, and Text Levels ... 132 Appendix 5C Teacher Resources for Listening and Reading Comprehension, Oral and Written Expression, and Related Skills ... 139 6 Assessment–Instruction Links for Math Concepts, Computations, and Problem Solving ... 143 Appendix 6A Assessment of Math Concepts, Computations, Problem Solving, and Related Skills ... 165 Appendix 6B Instructional Resources for Math Concepts, Computations, Problem Solving, and Related Skills ... 168 Appendix 6C Teacher Resources for Math Concepts, Computations, Problem Solving, and Related Skills ... 172 ##### III Systems Approaches to Schools, Families, and Learners with Specific Learning Disabilities ... 175 7 Classroom Organizational and Social-Emotional Climate Issues ... 177 8 Teaching Across the Content Areas of the Curriculum ... 191 9 A Systems Approach to Teaching and Learning ... 207 Appendix 9A Instructional Resources for Executive Functions ... 217 10 Co-occurring Specific Learning Disabilities and Twice-Exceptional Students ... 219 11 Use of Technology in Teaching ... 223 ##### IV New Beginnings in Teaching Students with and without Specific Learning Disabilities ... 231 12 Preservice and In-Service Professional Development for All Educationally Relevant Disciplines ... 233 Appendix 12A Resources and Models to Prepare Preservice General Education Teachers and Other Educational Professionals for Teaching Students with Specific Learning Disabilities ... 240 13 Cross-Disciplinary Communication and Collaboration ... 249 14 Free Appropriate Public Education for All Students, with and without Specific Learning Disabilities ... 263 Appendix 14A Common Core Standards for Educational Policy Makers, Lawyers, Legislators, and Government Regulators: A Team Approach ... 274 ### About the Authors ##### Virginia W. Berninger, Ph.D., Professor and Research Affiliate, Educational Psychology, Center on Human Development and Disability, University of Washington Dr. Berninger received her Ph.D. in psychology at Johns Hopkins University and has had a career informed both by translation science (bridging basic research and application to practice) and interdisciplinary contributions to assessment, diagnosis, and treatment, including instruction. Her current efforts focus on evidence-based, treatment-relevant differential diagnosis of specific learning disabilities and professional development for teachers and other professionals in schools and outside schools who influence school practices. ##### Beverly J. Wolf, M.Ed., Director, Slingerland ® Institute for Literacy Ms. Wolf received her M.Ed. in education at Seattle Pacific University and brings to this collaborative effort experience as a classroom teacher, a principal of an elementary school for children with dyslexia, and an educational consultant providing professional development nationally and locally on structured language teaching. ### Use of Technology in Teaching In the information age the interface between computer tools and student computer users is relevant to students with and without specific learning disabilities (SLDs). Although computer tools are often recommended for accommodations for students with SLDs, they can also be used for explicit instruction in oral and written language and math. ##### Teaching Students to Use Computers The computer is an invaluable tool for writing activities—it can be used to produce letters, detect and fix spelling errors, and generate and revise written texts. Several decades ago, Logan (1986) predicted that computer technology would enhance literacy. However, whether students with dysgraphia or with or without other SLDs benefit from use of computers in written expression may depend on whether they receive explicit, systematic instruction in keyboarding, spelling, and composing with the computer. ##### Need for Explicit Handwriting Instruction For students with severe dysgraphia, a decision has to be made as to whether instruction should focus on just manuscript and cursive handwriting or on keyboarding to use in operating a computer for written assignments. Increasingly, research is pointing to the value of teaching both handwriting modes and keyboarding to students with and without SLDs. ##### Need for Explicit Spelling Instruction The need for explicit instruction in spelling continues even in the technology era with spell check, which flags possible spelling errors that can only be fixed if the computer user knows the correct spelling to select from the menu of possibilities offered. ##### Need for Explicit Written Composition Instruction Computers have been shown to help both those who do and do not struggle with writing. As research has shown, computers can be used to teach strategies for planning, translating, reviewing, and revising a written composition. ##### Use of Computers in Content Areas of the Curriculum An ongoing topic of interest in educational technology is whether computers deliver more effective instruction than human teachers. Research activities at the Assistive and Instructional Technology Lab show that using both visual and verbal information in designing and writing technology-supported instructional tools is more effective than verbal alone. More research is needed on which technology tools may be most beneficial for students.