CHAPTER 2

Attitudes

TOOLBOX

WHAT IS AN ATTITUDE?

While there are many ways of defining an attitude, the Making Friends program is based on one of the early definitions: “an attitude is an idea charged with emotion which predisposes a class of actions to a particular class of social situations” (Triandis, 1971, p. 2). Notably, attitudes are complex, with a cognitive component (ideas and thoughts), an affective component (feelings), and a behavioral component (behavioral intentions, behavior or actions toward/away from the attitude referent; Ajzen, 1988; Eagly & Chaiken, 1993; Triandis, 1971). In this case, the attitude referent —Ms. Eacott — mentioned in Chapter 1, the Making Friends program uses attitude change research (Triandis, Adamopoulos, & Brinberg, 1984) as a foundation to create accepting multicultural inclusive classes. Therefore, this chapter provides more in-depth information on attitudes, including the definition of an attitude, developmental information on how and when attitudes are formed, a brief summary of research findings on attitudes, and implications for teachers and family members. For the seminal research on attitudes and attitude development, see Allport (1935). For more recent research on attitudes and attitude change, see Ajzen (2001), Wood and Fabrigar (2012), Yu and Ostrosky (2012), and Yu, Ostrosky, and attitude generates something different: ideas and thoughts (he or she is bad or good, or like or unlike me), feelings (like/dislike, enjoyment/discomfort, anxiety/calm), and behaviors or behavioral intentions (to avoid or seek out).

HOW ARE ATTITUDES FORMED?

Attitudes are formed over time by many influences that begin occurring when a child is very young. Simply put, children learn attitudes. Attitudes do not just happen; attitudes are encouraged and supported in particular directions (toward or away; positive or negative) by three primary sources: indirect experiences, direct experiences, and the child’s primary social group (Derman-Sparks, Tanaka Higa, & Sparks, 1980; Triandis, 1971; Triandis, Adamopoulos, & Brinberg, 1984).

Indirect Experiences

There are many indirect experiences or sources of information that shape attitudes by indirectly providing information. These include but are not limited to how individuals are portrayed in books, movies, television, photographs, and conversations. Each of these sources of information indirectly informs a child’s sense of self and sense of others. Stated another way, each of these sources of information provides both a mirror (shaping perceptions of self) and a window (shaping perceptions of others; Blaska, 2000). Therefore, children are indirectly exposed to the attitude referent (e.g., child with disabilities, child from a different race or ethnicity, child who uses multiple languages, child who is from a diverse family structure) through the information they receive in print and visual media or through conversations in daily life.

Here are three examples that illustrate the influence of indirect experiences:

• If a person is not portrayed at all in conversations, books, or popular media, this sends a strong and silent message that such a person is excluded, invisible, or does not belong (Blaska, 2000; Hughes, Rodriguez, Smith, Johnson, Stevenson, & Spicer, 2006).
• If a person is repeatedly portrayed in a negative light in conversations, books, movies, television, or video games (e.g., a character with a disability or a character from a specific ethnic or racial group is often the “villain”) or is portrayed in ways that emphasize that he or she belongs to a different world (e.g., only Caucasian characters succeed, only Latino or African American characters live in poverty), it can predispose children to have a stereotypic view, to be less accepting, or to espouse negative attitudes toward others.
• When children are introduced to diverse characters demonstrated in a positive behavior, it reinforces a more accepting and inclusive attitude.

Direct Experiences

A similar thing happens with direct experiences. Direct experiences are authentic, firsthand encounters with individuals who are different in some way. These experiences may include playing with a child with disabilities, a child who speaks another language, a child who is racially or ethnically different, or a child from a home with a unique family structure (e.g., raised by adoptive parents, two dads, or a grandmother).

• If repeated experiences and/or interactions with others who are different from one’s self are negative, uncomfortable, or unsuccessful, this will likely have a negative impact on early perceptions, setting the stage for negative attitudes.
• If repeated experiences and/or interactions with individuals who are diverse are positive, comfortable, or successful, it will likely have a positive impact on early perceptions, setting the stage for positive attitudes.

Primary Social Group

Last, a child’s primary social group greatly influences the attitudes that he or she adopts (Castelli, Zogmaister, & Tomelleri, 2009; Hughes et al., 2006; Jeynes, 2005; Peretti & Sydney, 1984; Sinclair, Dunn, & Lowery, 2005; Thornton & Camburn, 1987; Weinraub, Clemens, Sockloff, Ethridge, Gracely, & Myers, 1984). Families are the first primary social group for young children, and consequently, parents and other family members play a critical role in the development of perceptions and attitude formation.

• If family members make disparaging remarks about an individual of another race, a young child will learn to do the same.
• If a child is cared for by a relative who repeatedly demonstrates pity and discomfort when in the presence of children with disabilities, the child will likely do the same, mirroring the actions and words they have seen or heard.

WHEN DOES ATTITUDE FORMATION ABOUT HUMAN DIFFERENCES BEGIN?

The presence of negative attitudes toward individuals who are different from oneself is not a new phenomenon, nor is it a phenomenon seen only in the United States. There is a long history of negative perceptions and attitudes toward people with disabilities, which date back to ancient Greek and Roman times (Munyi, 2012) and are still widespread. Likewise, there is a long history of nonacceptance and discrimination related to race. Children show preferences toward those whom they perceive as similar to themselves from a very young age, which continues to evolve as they grow.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

Research has consistently demonstrated that teachers and family members have a powerful impact on children’s attitudes. So what can be done to ensure that attitudes of acceptance are developed in children? The following things are important to consider:

• Knowing oneself and one’s own attitudes. Before beginning the Making Friends program, it’s important that all adults involved understand how attitudes are formed and have a clear sense of their own attitudes.
• Involving family members, especially during transitions into new educational settings.
• Utilizing a multicomponent approach to address all aspects of attitudes.
• Planning for the maintenance of an accepting, welcoming, and inclusive setting to continue fostering positive interactions and thoughts.