Williams 2e Chapter One Excerpt.pdf

INTERVENTIONS for

Disorders in CHILDREN

A. Lynn Williams Sharynne McLeod Rebecca J. McCauley Foreword by Caroline Bowen

INTERVENTIONS for Speech Sound Disorders

SECOND EDITION

edited by

edited by A. Lynn Williams, Ph.D. East Tennessee State University

Bathurst, Australia

and Rebecca J. McCauley, Ph.D. The Ohio State University

Johnson City Sharynne McLeod, Ph.D. Charles Sturt University

PAUL H BROOKES PUBLISHING C?

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Williams, A. Lynn, editor. | McLeod, Sharynne, editor. | McCauley, Rebecca Joan, 1952- editor. Title: Interventions for speech sound disorders in children / edited by A. Lynn Williams, Sharynne McLeod, and, Rebecca J. McCauley. Description: Second edition. | Baltimore, Maryland : Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., 2020. | Series: Communication and language intervention | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2020022889 (print) | LCCN 2020022890 (ebook) | ISBN 9781681253589 (paperback) | ISBN 9781681253596 (epub) | ISBN 9781681253602 (pdf ) Subjects: LCSH: Speech therapy for children. | Speech disorders in children. Classification: LCC RJ496.S7 I58 2021 (print) | LCC RJ496.S7 (ebook) | DDC 618.92/85506—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020022889

LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020022890

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Contents

About the Video Clips and Downloads viii Series Preface x Editorial Advisory Board xi About the Editors xii About the Contributors xiv Foreword Caroline Bowen, A.M., Ph.D. xxiii Preface xxvi Acknowledgments xxix

Chapter 1 Introduction 1 A. Lynn Williams, Sharynne McLeod, and Rebecca J. McCauley

Chapter 2 Implementing Interventions 23 Elise Baker and A. Lynn Williams

Chapter 3 Minimal Pairs Intervention 33 Elise Baker

Chapter 4 Multiple Oppositions Intervention 61 A. Lynn Williams and Eleanor Sugden

Chapter 5 Complexity Approach 91 Michele L. Morrisette

Chapter 6 Integrated Phonological Awareness Intervention 111 Brigid C. McNeill and Gail T. Gillon

Chapter 7 Psycholinguistic Intervention 141 Michelle Pascoe and Joy Stackhouse

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vi Contents Chapter 8 Digital Tools for Interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Yvonne Wren, Sarah Masso, and A. Lynn Williams Chapter 9 Speech Perception Intervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Susan Rvachew and Françoise Brosseau-Lapré Chapter 10 Core Vocabulary Intervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Sharon Crosbie, Alison Holm, and Barbara Dodd Chapter 11 The Cycles Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Raúl Francisco Prezas, Lesley C. Magnus, and Barbara W. Hodson Chapter 12 Stimulability Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Adele W. Miccio and A. Lynn Williams Chapter 13 Enhanced Milieu Teaching With Phonological Emphasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 Nancy J. Scherer, Ann Kaiser, and Jennifer R. Frey Chapter 14 Naturalistic Recast Intervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 Stephen M. Camarata Chapter 15 Morphosyntax and Speech Sound Interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 Ann A. Tyler, Allison M. Haskill, and Jennifer Thompson Mackovjak Chapter 16 Nonlinear Phonological Intervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 Barbara May Bernhardt Chapter 17 Articulation Interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419 Jonathan L. Preston and Megan C. Leece Chapter 18 The Nuffield Centre Dyspraxia Programme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447 Pam Williams Chapter 19 The PROMPT Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477 Deborah A. Hayden, Aravind K. Namasivayam, Roslyn Ward, Amy Clark, and Jennifer Eigen Chapter 20 Speech Motor Programming Intervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505 Kirrie Ballard and Donald A. Robin

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Contents vii

Chapter 21 Dynamic Temporal and Tactile Cueing ..... 537 Edythe A. Strand

Chapter 22 Biofeedback Interventions ..... 573 Joanne Cleland and Jonathan L. Preston

Chapter 23 Intervention Strategies for Developmental Dysarthria ..... 601 Lindsay Pennington and Megan M. Hodge

Chapter 24 Choosing the Best Intervention: The Nexus Among Interventions, Clients, and Clinicians ..... 627 A. Lynn Williams, Rebecca J. McCauley, and Sharynne McLeod

Index ..... 641

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) and Extensions to the IPA for the Transcription of Disordered Speech (extIPA) Charts ..... 657

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About the Editors

A. Lynn Williams, Ph.D. /e ln wljəmz/ Associate Dean and Professor, East

Tennessee State University, Johnson City Lynn Williams is Associate Dean in the College of Clinical and Rehabilitative Health Sciences and a professor in the Department of Audiology and Speech-Language Pathology at East Tennessee State University. Most of her research has involved clinical investigations of models of phonological treatment for children with severe to profound speech sound disorders. She developed a new model of phonological intervention called multiple oppositions that has been the basis of federally funded intervention studies by the National Institutes of Health (NIH), and she developed a phonological intervention software program, Sound Contrasts in Phonology (SCIP), that was funded by NIH. Dr. Williams served as associate editor of Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools and most recently served as the associate editor of the American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology. Dr. Williams is a Fellow of the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association and served as ASHA Vice President for Academic Affairs in Speech-Language Pathology (2016–2018). She currently

Sharynne McLeod, Ph.D. /ʃæɹən məklaυd/ Professor, Charles Sturt University,

Bathurst, Australia Sharynne McLeod is a speech-language pathologist and professor of speech and language acquisition at Charles Sturt University, Australia. She is an elected Fellow of the A merican Speech-anguage-L Hearing Association and Life Member of Speech Pathology Australia. She was named Australia’s Research Field Leader in Audiology, Speech and Language Pathology (2018, 2019, 2020) and has won Editors’ Awards from Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing: Speech (2018) and American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology (2019). She was an Australian Research Council Future Fellow, previous editor-in-chief of the International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, and has coauthored 11 books and over 200 peer-reviewed journal articles and chapters focusing on children’s speech

About the Editors

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About the Editors Rebecca J. McCauley, Ph.D. /ɹəbεkə de məkɔli/ Professor, The Ohio State Univer-

sity, Columbus Rebecca J. McCauley is a professor in the Department of Speech and Hearing Sciences at The Ohio State University. Her research and writing have focused on assessment and treatment of pediatric communication disorders, with a special focus on speech sound disorders, including childhood apraxia of speech. She has authored or edited seven books on these opics and co-t authored a test designed to aid in the differential diagnosis of childhood apraxia of speech. Dr. McCauley is a Fellow of the American Speech-Language- Hearing ssociation, has received Honors of the Association, and has served two terms as A

Excerpted from Interventions for Speech Sound

About the Contributors

Elise Baker, Ph.D. /əlis bkə/ Associate Professor of Allied Health, Western Sydney

University and South Western Sydney Local Health District, Australia Dr. Baker is a speech-language pathologist, clinical researcher, and an associate professor of Allied Health, with Western Sydney University and South Western Sydney Local Health District, Australia. Her research focuses on assessment and intervention for children with speech sound disorders. She is passionate about supporting speech-language pathologists’

implementation of high-quality clinical research into everyday clinical practice. Kirrie J. Ballard, Ph.D. /kri blad/ Professor, The University of Sydney, Lidcombe,

New South Wales, Australia Dr. Ballard completed her Ph.D. in 1997 at Northwestern University, Illinois, and a postdoctoral fellowship at the National Center for Voice and Speech at the University of Iowa. She has held academic positions at Indiana University, the University of Iowa, and Thet University of Sydney. She has published extensively on diagnosis and intervention for both developmental and acquired speech disorders, being awarded funding from both U.S. and Australian federal granting bodies. She was awarded a prestigious Future Fellowship from the Australian Research Council in 2012, served as editor-in-chief of the International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology from 2014 to 2019, and in 2019 was appointed

Fellow of Speech Pathology Australia. Barbara May Bernhardt, Ph.D. /baɹ.bɹə me b˜nhaɹt/ Professor Emerita, Registered Speech-Language Pathologist, School of Audiology and Speech Sciences,

University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada Dr. Bernhardt was a professor at the School of Audiology and Speech Sciences at the University of British Columbia (1990–2017) and has been a practicing speech-language pathologist since 1972. Her primary focus is phonological development, assessment, and intervention, including an ongoing crosslinguistic project (http://phonodevelopment .sites.olt.ubc.ca). Other areas of focus include ultrasound in speech therapy; language development, assessment, and intervention; and approaches to service delivery to Indigenous

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About the Contributors

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About the Contributors Françoise Brosseau-Lapré, Ph.D. /fʁa˜swɑz bʁɔso lpʁe/ Assistant Professor, Department of Speech, Language, and Hearing Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette,

Indiana Dr. Brosseau-Lapré is a speech-language pathologist and an assistant professor in the Department of Speech, Language, and Hearing Sciences at Purdue University. Her research is funded through the National Institutes of Health. Her research as director of the Purdue Child Phonology Lab focuses on how speech perception impacts speech production and interacts with language factors in children with speech sound disorder with or without

Stephen M. Camarata, Ph.D. /stivən εm kməɹatə/ Professor, Department of Hearing and Speech Sciences, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville,

Tennessee Dr. Camarata is a professor of hearing and speech sciences at Vanderbilt University School  of Medicine and an investigator at the John F. Kennedy Center on Development and Disabilities. His expertise includes speech and language intervention in children with isabilities, including autism, Down syndrome, hearing loss, and developmental d language disorders (DLD), and he has published more than 100 articles on these topics. He is a ellow of the American Speech-F Language-Hearing Association and Editor for Language of the Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research. Dr. Camarata’s research has been funded by the U.S. National Institutes of Health, the U.S. Institute of Educational Sciences, the U.S. Department of Education, and/or private foundations since 1986, and he is the past chair of the NIH study sections on Child Psychopathology and Developmental Disabilities

Joanne Cleland, Ph.D. /doan klεlənd/ Senior Lecturer, University of Strathclyde,

Glasgow, Scotland Dr. Cleland is a speech and language therapist and senior lecturer at the University of Strathclyde in Glasgow, Scotland. Her research focuses on using instrumental techniques to diagnose and treat speech disorders in children. She is particularly interested in develop-

About the Contributors

xvi About the Contributors Sharon Crosbie, Ph.D. /∫ɹən kɹɒzbi/ Senior Lecturer, Australian Catholic U niversity,

School of Allied Health, Banyo, Queensland Dr. Crosbie is a senior lecturer in speech pathology at the Australian Catholic University.

Her research has focused on speech, language, and literacy development in childhood. Barbara Dodd, Ph.D. /babəɹə dɒd/ Honorary Professor, Murdoch Children’s Research

Institute, Melbourne; University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia Although officially retired, Dr. Dodd is still active in research and teaching and writing. She worked in departments of psychology, linguistics, and speech-language pathology at universities in the United Kingdom and Australia. Her research focuses on the nature, differen-

tial diagnosis, and treatment of spoken and written developmental phonological disorders. Jennifer Eigen, M.S. /dənfə eiən/ Speech-Language Pathologist, Private Prac-

tice, Brooklyn, New York Jennifer Eigen owns a private practice in Brooklyn, New York, where she and her therapists provide speech-language services to toddlers, preschoolers, and school-a ge children with a wide range of issues, including motor speech, language, and autism spectrum disorders. Jennifer also works for the PROMPT Institute, teaching PROMPT classes to speech-language pathologists worldwide, helping the institute develop online courses, and contributing to PROMPT publications. Additionally, Jennifer teaches a course in speech sound disorders

Jennifer R. Frey, Ph.D. /d εnfr fre/ Associate Professor, George Washington

National Science Challenge, Liggins Institute, University of Auckland, New Zealand Dr. Gillon is Director of the Child Well-being Research Institute at the University of Canterbury, New Zealand, and is Co-director of A Better Start National Science Challenge, a 10-ar program of research focused on ensuring all children’s learning success and well-ye being. She has an extensive publication record in children’s speech-language and literacy

About the Contributors

xvii

About the Contributors Allison M. Haskill, Ph.D. /lsən hskəl/ Professor, Augustana College, Rock Island,

Illinois Dr. Haskill is a professor in the Communication Sciences and Disorders Department at Augustana College where she teaches child language development and disorders courses and also serves as Director for the Center for Speech, Language, and Hearing. Her areas of research include narratives of children on the autism spectrum and morphosyntax skills of

Deborah A. Hayden, M.A. /dεbə heidn/ Research Director, The PROMPT Institute,

Santa Fe, New Mexico Deborah Hayden is the developer and founder of the PROMPT Institute. Currently, she is the research director of the PROMPT Institute and continues to work with colleagues around the world to promote and develop clinical and brain-related research for the identification, assessment, and treatment of expressive speech disorders across the

Megan M. Hodge, Ph.D. /mεƒn hɑd/ Professor Emerita, Department of

Communication Disorders, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada Dr. Hodge’s clinical and research work have focused on linking theory with practice for serving children with motor speech disorders with the goal of maximizing these children’s

Barbara Hodson, Ph.D. /bbərə hɑdsən/ Professor, Wichita State University,

Queensland, Australia Dr. Holm is a speech-language pathologist and academic at the Nathan campus of Griffith University in Brisbane. Her research interests include assessment and intervention for multilingual and monolingual children with speech sound disorders and multilingual

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About the Contributors

xviii About the Contributors Ann Kaiser, Ph.D. /n kaizr/ Professor, Special Education, Vanderbilt University,

Nashville, Tennessee Dr. Kaiser is the Susan W. Gray Professor of Education and Human Development at Vanderbilt University. She is the author of more than 175 articles on early intervention for children with autism and other development communication disabilities. Her research

Megan C. Leece, M.A. /mεn lis/ Research Speech-Language Pathologist, Syracuse

University, Syracuse, New York Megan C. Leece is a speech-language pathologist at the Speech Production Laboratory at Syracuse University. She specializes in working with children with speech sound disorders.

Jennifer Thompson Mackovjak, M.A. /dεnəfə tampsn/ Doctoral Candidate,

Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo Jennifer Thompson Mackovjak is a doctoral candidate in the Interdisciplinary Health Sciences program at Western Michigan University and holds a master of arts degree from Central Michigan University. She has served as a field preceptor, clinical instructor, and adjunct instructor and has provided speech and language therapy across the life span. Ms. Thompson Mackovjak specializes in autism, behavioral therapy, and augmentative and alternative communication. Currently, she is a pediatric therapist for a rural Critical

Lesley C. Magnus, Ph.D. /lεsl mg nəs/ Professor, Minot State University, Minot,

Sydney; and Academic Fellow, Charles Sturt University, Australia Dr. Masso is a certified practicing speech pathologist, a research fellow at Thet University of Sydney, Australia, and an adjunct research fellow at Charles Sturt University, Australia. She developed the Word-Level Analysis of Polysyllables and is currently investigating the relationship between polysyllable speech accuracy and literacy development with funding from an Australian Research Council Discovery Early Career Research Awards

North Dakota Dr. Magnus is a professor at Minot State University, specializing in phonology, clefting, and assessment in speech-language pathology. She has been involved in clinical work for more

About the Contributors

About the Contributors Brigid C. McNeill, Ph.D. /bɹdt məknil/ Associate Professor, University of Canterbury Child Well-being Research Institute, School of Teacher Education, College of Education Health and Human Development, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New

Zealand Dr. McNeill is a speech-language therapist and Associate Professor and Deputy Head of School of Teacher Education in the College of Education, Health and Human Development at the University of Canterbury. Dr. McNeill is an international expert on literacy development in children with childhood apraxia of speech. Her research also focuses on developing and eval-

Adele W. Miccio, Ph.D. /ədεl miʔtʃoυ/ Associate Professor, Pennsylvania State Uni-

versity, University Park Adele Miccio died in March 2009. Having completed her Ph.D. in speech and hearing sciences at Indiana University in Bloomington, she was a distinguished professor at the Pennsylvania State University since 1995. Her research, funded by the National Institutes of Health and the U.S. Department of Education, focused on interventions for children with speech sound disorders and phonological development of bilingual children and children with chronic middle-ear infections. In 2002, she was a visiting scholar and guest lecturer at Harvard University, and in 2006, she was named Director of the Penn State Center for Language Science. A beloved and cherished colleague, Adele is greatly missed by all of us

Michele L. Morrisette, Ph.D. /mɪʃel mɔɪsεt/ Lecturer, Indiana University, Bloomington

Michele L. Morrisette, Ph.D. /mʃεl mɔɹsεt/ Lecturer, Indiana University, Bloomington Dr. Morrisette holds a lecturer position in the Department of Speech and Hearing Sciences at Indiana University, Bloomington. Her research, clinical, and teaching interests focus on

Aravind K. Namasivayam, Ph.D. /ɑɹəvnd nməʃvəjəm/ Scientist, University of

Michelle Pascoe, Ph.D. /mʃel pskευ/ Associate Professor, Division of Communica-

Toronto, Ontario, Canada Dr. Aravind Namasivayam is a speech-language pathologist with expertise in working with clinical and developmental populations with speech disorders. He is a research associate in the Oral Dynamics Laboratory, Department of Speech-Language Pathology, at the Univer-

About the Contributors

xx About the Contributors Lindsay Pennington, Ph.D. /lndzi pεnŋtn / Reader in Communication Disorders, Population Health Sciences Institute, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University,

United Kingdom Dr. Pennington’s research and clinical practice focus on the speech and communication development of children and young people with motor disorders. Her current and recent work includes the development of classification scales to describe speech and eating and drinking and trials of parent training programs to promote early communication development, interventions to improve speech intelligibility for children and young people with dysarthria, and the comparative effects of medications to reduce

Jonathan L. Preston, Ph.D. /dɑnəθn pɹεstn/ Associate Professor, Syracuse

University, New York Dr. Preston is a speech-language pathologist and an associate professor in the Communication Sciences and Disorders Department at Syracuse University. His clinical research focuses on neurolinguistically motivated and evidence-based treatments for children with speech sound disorders, including children with residual speech errors and childhood apraxia of speech. He also teaches undergraduate and graduate courses related to speech

Raúl Francisco Prezas, Ph.D. /raul presəs/ Associate Professor, Stephen F. Austin

Donald A. Robin, Ph.D. /dɒnəld rɒbən/ Professor and Chair, University of New

State University, Nacogdoches, Texas Dr. Prezas is an associate professor in the Department of Human Services at Stephen F. Austin State University in Texas. He has several years of clinical experience in the university, public school, and home health settings, particularly working with culturally and linguistically diverse populations and their families. His interests include speech disorders, phonological development, bilingual/multicultural assessment and treatment, working with children with highly unintelligible speech, phonological treatment models/outcomes, school-based issues, working with underrepresented students, and epistemological beliefs. In addition to publications in several journals, including the American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, Dr. Prezas has written book chapters and articles related to interest areas, including monolingual and bilingual phonological acquisition, selective mutism, autism, fluency disorders, and culturally and linguistically

About the Contributors

About the Contributors Susan Rvachew, Ph.D. /suzən ɹəvʃu/ Professor, McGill University, Montreal,

Quebec, Canada Dr. Rvachew, ASHA Fellow, is a professor in the School of Communication Sciences and Disorders at McGill University. Her research focuses on the development of more effective interventions to treat speech sound disorders in children and prevent reading disability in this population. She is the author of more than 80 papers and two books on phonological

Nancy J. Scherer, Ph.D. /nænsi $ \surd $/ Professor,Arizona State University,Tempe

Nancy J. Scherer, Ph.D. /nnsi ʃir/ Professor, Arizona State University, Tempe Dr. Scherer is a professor of speech and hearing science at Arizona State University. She conducts research on assessment and intervention efficacy for young children with craniofacial conditions. She focuses on assessing effectiveness of early intervention service delivery models (telehealth, parent training, hybrid) for application in the United States and

Joy Stackhouse, Ph.D. /dɔ stkhaυs/ Professor Emeritus, Department of Human

Communication Sciences, University of Sheffield, England Dr. Stackhouse is Emeritus Professor of Human Communication Sciences at the University of Sheffield and a Fellow of the Royal College of Speech and Language Therapists. In collaboration with Bill Wells and Michelle Pascoe, she has developed a psycholinguistic framework for the assessment and management of children and young adults with

Edythe A. Strand, Ph.D. /idθ strnd/ Emeritus Speech Pathologist, Department of

Strathclyde, Glasgow, Scotland Dr. Sugden is a speech-language pathologist and postdoctoral researcher working at the University of Strathclyde. She is interested in the everyday clinical management of childhood speech sound disorders, instrumental analysis and treatment of speech sound disorders, and how to support speech-language pathologists’ application of evidence into their xxii

About the Contributors

xxii About the Contributors Ann A. Tyler, Ph.D. /n tɑlə/ Associate Dean, Professor, Western Michigan

University, Kalamazoo Dr. Tyler is Associate Dean in the College of Health and Human Services and Professor of Speech, Language and Hearing Sciences at Western Michigan University. She is a Fellow of the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA). She has pre sented and published extensively in childhood speech sound disorders. Her research in the area of treatment efficacy has been supported by a variety of external funding sponsors. Dr.

Roslyn Ward, Ph.D. /ɹozln wɑɹd/ Lead Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Perth Children’s Hospital, Perth, Australia; Senior Research Fellow, Curtin University, Bentley

Western Australia Dr. Ward is a senior research fellow in the School of Occupational Therapy, Social Work and Speech Pathology at Curtin University/Perth Children’s Hospital. She is also a certified practicing speech-language pathologist. Her research interests include conducting clinical

Pam Williams, Ph.D. /pm wljəmz/ Honorary Lecturer, University College London

Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London Dr. Williams worked as a speech and language therapist at the Nuffield Hearing and Speech Centre for more than 30 years before retiring from her clinical role in December 2017. She was involved in the creation of the original Nuffield Centre Dyspraxia Programme (1985) and has been responsible for its development since 1993. She continues to run training courses for speech and language professionals on the subject of childhood apraxia of speech and the Nuffield Centre Dyspraxia Programme (Third Edition). Dr. Williams was awarded a Fellowship of the Royal College of Speech and Language Therapists in 2013 in recognition of having carried out work of special value to the profession. She completed her doctoral studies at the University of Sheffield, United Kingdom, in 2016, and her thesis investigated the diadochokinetic skills of children with speech sound disorders. She continues to be a mem-

Yvonne Wren, Ph.D. /vɒn ɹen/ Director, Bristol Speech and Language Therapy Research Unit, North Bristol NHS Trust, United Kingdom, and Senior Research Fellow,

Introduction

Introduction

A. Lynn Williams, Sharynne McLeod, and Rebecca J. McCauley 1

Speech sound disorders (SSD) in children are a widespread, high-prevalence disability (Eadie  et  al., 2015; Law, Boyle, Harris, Harkness, & Nye, 2000; McLeod, Harrison, McAllister, & McCormack, 2013) that comprises 40% to 70% of the caseload of speechlanguage pathologists (SLPs) who work in pediatric settings (Furlong, Serry, Erickson, & Morris, 2018; Joffe & Pring, 2008; McLeod & Baker, 2014). SSD are diverse and vary in both severity and type and often co-occur with other disabilities, such as language and literacy impairments. Following is a comprehensive definition of SSD that is used throughout

acy impairments. Following is a comprehensive definition of SSD that is used throughout this book: Children with speech sound disorders can have any combination of difficulties with perception, articulation/motor production, and/or phonological representation of speech segments (consonants and vowels), phonotactics (syllable and word shapes), and prosody (lexical and grammatical tones, rhythm, stress, and intonation) that may impact speech intelligibility and acceptability . . . speech sound disorders is used as an umbrella term for the full range of speech sound difficulties of both known (e.g., Down syndrome, cleft lip and palate) and presently unknown origin. (International Expert Panel on Multilingual Children’s Speech, 2012,

ently unknown origin. (International Expert Panel on Multilingual Children’s Speech, 2012, p. 1, emphasis added) This definition of SSD aligns closely with definitions of SSD from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5; American Psychiatric Association, 2013) and the International Classification of Diseases, 11th Revision (ICD-11; World Health Organization [WHO], 2018) except that, in this book, we also include children with known causes for their SSD (e.g., cerebral palsy). A number of the authors have used the following classification from McLeod and Baker (2017) to describe the breadth of SSDs: phonology (phonological impairment and inconsistent speech disorder) and motor speech

phonology (phonological impairment and inconsistent speech disorder) and motor speech (articulation impairment, childhood apraxia of speech, and childhood dysarthria). The breadth and complexity of SSD present a considerable challenge for SLPs to differentially diagnose the type of SSD and determine the most appropriate intervention approach for a given child, especially when there are a number of published approaches from which to select. Similar to the first edition, this book uses a prescribed template to describe a number of intervention approaches that were developed for the range of SSD that SLPs  may encounter in their practice. This template facilitates critical comparisons across interventions in terms of client populations and key elements as well as levels of evidence. As in the first edition, this organization may be useful for different groups of readers who will likely read the book with different goals in mind. In particular, we expect this

2 Williams, McLeod, and McCauley 2) clinical practitioners who work with children with SSD; 3) faculty and clinical educators who teach students about SSD in children; and 4) parents of children with SSD. The chapter begins with a description of the purpose of the book followed by an overview of the template and organization of each intervention chapter, with recommended sections for different readers. Next, a structural framework for intervention is described to aid in the understanding of the components of each intervention. Finally, the chapter ends with a list of references

for several core components that are foundational to working with children with SSD.

THE PURPOSE OF THIS BOOK Clinical decision making is defined as choosing among available alternatives and involves collection, interpretation, and evaluation of data in order to make an evidence-based decision (Tiffen, Corbridge, & Slimmer, 2014). A growing body of literature demonstrates that explicit training in clinical decision-making skills is required for novice clinicians (Dudding & Pfeiffer, 2018; Finn, 2011; Furlong, et al., 2018; Ginsberg, Friberg, & Visconti, 2016; Hill, Davidson, & Theodoros, 2012). This is a critically important skill for students and practitioners to develop in making evidence-b ased clinical decisions in selecting intervention approaches, especially when there are a number of published approaches from which to select. Baker and McLeod (2011) identified 42 different intervention approaches for children with SSD. While there is empirical evidence that most studied interventions are effective, no single approach has proven to be the most effective. This adds to the overwhelming nature of the decision that both novice and experienced clinicians face in determining which approach to select from an array of approaches. The variety poses a challenge for SLPs: knowing which approaches best suit the children with SSD on their caseloads and understanding how to implement the approaches with fidelity. Further, different approaches may be better suited to specific degrees and types of impairments (see Table 1.1) or at different points within the continuum of intervention for a given child (Baker, McCauley, Williams, & McLeod, 2020). So, the question is, How do clinicians determine which intervention approach is the best one to use with their client? That is

determine which intervention approach is the best one to use with their client? That is where this book comes in. A primary purpose of this book is to describe and critically analyze a range of intervention approaches used for children with SSD. A second, equally important, or even more important, purpose is to help readers learn skills that will enable them to examine and critically evaluate these and other approaches for themselves. Thus, in response to the previous question, our goal with this book is to provide SLPs with sufficient information about each intervention approach so that they can align the clinical characteristics of their client’s SSD to the intervention approach that best addresses those needs. Furthermore, we do not believe that a single intervention approach will be the sole intervention for any child with SSD. As readers will learn through reading about the various approaches in this book, several interventions are designed as transitional methods to help children progress from emerging sound systems to elaborating their sound systems.

Introduction

speech, and perceptual training, as well as biofeedback and digitally based interventions.

their empirical evidence, or potential efficacy, as well as their widespread use across ages, severity levels, and populations. Included are approaches encompassing interventions that focus on sound production accuracy, systemwide restructuring of the child’s phonology, coexisting speech and language or speech and literacy impairments, articulation, motor

THE BOOK’S OVERALL ORGANIZATION We begin this edition of the book with a chapter by Baker and Williams (Chapter 2) with a guide for readers on how to learn about the various interventions discussed in the book and how to implement those interventions with fidelity. The framework from the Phonological Intervention Taxonomy (Baker, Williams, McLeod, & McCauley, 2018) is used to help both novice and experienced clinicians gain a deeper, richer understanding of the elements that comprise each intervention by considering four broad domains: Goals, Teaching Moment, Context, and Procedural Issues. The remainder of the book is devoted to the description of 21 intervention approaches. Given the diversity and complexity of these i nterventions, we have not attempted a categorization. An imposed classification of individual approaches would not be based on a definitive or agreed-upon set of categories, and classifications would differ among readers as well as among the developers of the approaches. Instead, the interventions are independent of each other and can be taught and learned in the sequence that matches readers’ goals and needs. However, as in the first edition, we have synthesized the information across all 21 approaches in a grid format both to help you identify approaches you want to explore further and to provide a snapshot comparison of the approaches.

Excerpted from Interventions for Speech Sound Disorders

4 Williams, McLeod, and McCauley most salient features of each intervention approach in terms of the developmental level of the child’s sound system (emerging, developing, and elaborating), the targeted stage of production of the intervention (planning, programming, and/or execution), and the targeted outcomes of the intervention (speech production, speech perception, phonological awareness, other oral language, and/or literacy). This strategy gives you the big picture of all 20 approaches so that you can then move to more focused reading of specific intervention

20 approaches so that you can then move to more focused reading of specific intervention approaches.

approaches. Three key features of the intervention chapters will be of special interest to readers:

1. Organization of each chapter using standard headings, which increases the ease of reading and learning about the interventions and enables comparisons among approaches. These headings, particularly Practical Requirements and Key Components, should also facilitate implementation of interventions once they are chosen as

nents, should also facilitate implementation of interventions once they are chosen as appropriate for a given child. 2. Evaluation of each approach within an evidence-based practice (EBP) framework that examines the levels of evidence—and the quality of evidence—for each approach. This information helps readers gauge the strength of an intervention’s empirical base, thus

text in the Practical Requirements and Key Component sections.

THE ORGANIZATION OF INDIVIDUAL INTERVENTION CHAPTERS To provide uniformity across approaches, authors of individual intervention chapters were invited to use the same template, with its prescribed specific headings and expected content. The standardization of headings across chapters promotes easy access to and evaluation of important information about each approach, thus facilitating decisions concerning treatment efficacy, clinician expertise, and clients’ preferences—the triad of considerations within EBP (Dollaghan, 2007; Sackett, Rosenberg, Gray, Hayes, & Richardson, 1996). The current template was modified slightly from the one used in the first edition on the basis of reviews and feedback we received from readers. Table 1.2 describes the current template

Target Populations Following an abstract and brief introduction, each chapter describes the primary populations for which the intervention is designed as well as any secondary populations— especially those for which there is empirical support or theoretical support for its use. Client populations are described in terms of age or developmental range and prerequisite skills required for use of the approach or program. Other considerations, such as child’s attention span, ability to imitate, and ability to follow complex directions, are described.

Introduction

Excerpted from Interventions for Speech Sound

6

tion’s theoretical or empirical basis or its procedures References Bibliographic references of in-text citations Key: ICF, International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health (World Health Organization [WHO], 2001);

the approach to the child are particularly detailed, authors use citations to supplement a

the approach to the child are particularly detailed, authors use citations to supplement a brief overview of the methods. Finally, authors address whether assessment also focused on the impact of the SSD on the child’s activities and participation. Interest in this expansion beyond the level of the speech impairment arises from work by WHO (2007) in the form of the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health—Children and Youth Version (ICF-Y). The ICF-C CY is a framework that provides an international interdisciplinary language of health and health-related issues for children that allows for the holistic consideration of the biopsychosocial issues facing children. Over the past 40 years, WHO has been working to create a holistic approach for all people, of all ages, across all nations, from a perspective of health and wellness providing a common language for comparison of data across countries, health-care disciplines, services, and time; to provide a systematic coding scheme for health information systems; and to provide a scientific basis for consequences of health conditions. The International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF; WHO, 2001) and ICF-CY have been endorsed by many professional associations throughout the world, including the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association in the Scope of Practice in Speech-Language Pathology (ASHA, 2016) and the Scope of Practice in Audiology (ASHA, 2018), the Royal College of Speech and Language Therapists (RCSLT), the Speech-Language and Audiology Canada (SAC), and Speech Pathology Australia (SPA), and have broad relevance to these professions (Blake & McLeod, 2018). The ICF and ICF-CY comprise the following interrelated components: Body Functions, Body Structures, Activities and Participation, Environmental Factors, and Personal Factors. Each of these factors relates to children with SSD, who are the focus of this book. An example of the application of the ICF-CY to a 7-year-old boy with

Introduction unintelligible speech  is found in McLeod (2006), and other applications to children

unintelligible speech  is found in McLeod (2006), and other applications to children with SSD are available (McLeod & McCormack, 2007). A merger between the ICF and ICF-CY was proposed by WHO in 2012 (https://www .who.int/classifications/icf/whoficresolution2012icfcy.pdf?ua=1) and is scheduled to occur in 2020. When this book was finalized, WHO still provided separate searchable websites for the ICF (WHO, 2001) (http://apps.who.int/classifications/icfbrowser/) and the ICF- CY (WHO, 2007) (https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/43737). Therefore, in this book authors were able to select whether they referred to the ICF or ICF-CY. Table 1.3 describes

the components of the ICF (WHO, 2001) and the ICF-

Theoretical Basis In this section, authors discuss the dominant theoretical explanation or rationale for the intervention approach or program, including the underlying assumptions regard-

ing the nature of 1) the impairment being addressed or 2) compensatory strategies being Table 1.3. Components of the International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health (ICF) and the

Personal Factors These are not specified in the ICF; however, factors may include age, sex, and indigenous status

Excerpted from Interventions for Speech Sound

8 Williams, McLeod, and McCauley developed via the intervention. Authors provide information about whether the intervention approach focuses solely on speech output and/or on other domains (e.g., perception, literacy, morphosyntax). Typically, the authors also provide information about the level of consequences being addressed within the ICF-CY framework—for example, whether the intervention is targeting a functional limitation directly or the social skill, activity, or social

role restrictions that result from it.

Empirical Basis This section of each chapter presents the empirical basis for the intervention through

This section of each chapter presents the empirical basis for the intervention through summaries and interpretation of studies that provide evidence to support the use of the intervention. Study descriptions include information about the participants and the study design. The Empirical Basis section of each chapter is considered of utmost importance because of its relevance to EBP. Although EBP was initially developed within medicine, it has become shorthand for the assumption that clinical services are improved when practitioners become “data seekers, data integrators, and critical evaluators of the application of new knowledge to clinical cases” (Bernstein Ratner, 2006, pp. 257–258). Furthermore, EBP encompasses specific steps by which professionals not only seek and evaluate research evidence in support of their practice but also actively integrate such evidence with their own

Table 1.4. Levels of evidence for intervention studies

dence in support of their practice but also actively integrate such evidence with their own expertise (including clinical data gathering) and client preferences (e.g., Dollaghan, 2007). In this section, authors analyze the research conducted for their approach and describe this research in terms of levels of evidence—a summary of evidence quality to facilitate readers’ effective and appropriate implementation of the interventions in clinical practice. A table is included in each intervention chapter that indicates the level of evidence for the journal articles and other sources cited by the authors and whether the evidence supports or refutes the effectiveness of the intervention approach. The levelsof-vidence system used here was adapted from the Scottish Intercollegiate Guideline e Network system and has been used by ASHA; see Table  1.4. Authors were encouraged to evaluate the quality of the evidence using two systems: the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale (Verhagen et  al., 1998) to evaluate the quality of experimental group

base (PEDro) scale (Verhagen et  al., 1998) to evaluate the quality of experimental group designs, and the Risk of Bias of N-of-1 Trials (RoBiNT) scale (Tate et al., 2013) to evaluate

Practical Requirements In this section, authors describe the nature, frequency, and length of sessions as well as whether the sessions are individual, group, school-based, or home-based. In addition,

4 Expert opinion (expert committee report, consensus conference, clinical experience of respected authorities)

Excerpted from Interventions for Speech Sound Disorders

Introduction

Introduction participants, the training required of those involved, and typically the dosage of the intervention (e.g., frequency and length of sessions). Where appropriate, the authors have included the nature of involvement of participants beyond the clinician and child (e.g.,  arents, peers, siblings, teachers). In the case of parent-p administered interventions,

the clinician’s role is specified.

Key Components This section is the how-to portion of the intervention chapters. Authors typically describe the target selection approach, the nature of goals or targeted outcome of the intervention approach (e.g., production of a specific sound, improved phonological awareness), and goal attack strategies (e.g., sequential, simultaneous, cyclical). Authors were encouraged to address the inclusion of social-based goals linked to the ICF framework, which address activities and participation. In addition, there is a description of the activities undertaken during the intervention approach, procedures implemented by the clinician, a list of general therapy steps (often including a therapy flowchart), and what materials and equipment

are required.

Monitoring Progress and Generalization In each chapter, authors provide recommended assessment techniques and data collection used for decision-making in each intervention approach. This includes discussion regarding techniques for determining whether progress is being made, when changes should be made to the intervention plan, and when treatment should be terminated. For some interventions, this section may be relatively brief, usually because it is assumed that these methods are independent of the specific approach and may differ by setting or clinician. Authors were also encouraged to address any outcome measures linked to the ICF-CY framework

that include changes in participation.

Case Study Each chapter includes a case study or studies to illustrate how an individual child responds to the intervention, challenges that require decision-making over the course of the intervention period, and the kinds of data collection that may be used to provide input to those decisions. Authors were also invited to include first hand accounts from parents, families,

Considerations for Children from

Considerations for Children from Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Backgrounds This section highlights the applicability of each intervention approach to children who are from linguistically and culturally diverse backgrounds. Authors provide ways their intervention approach might be modified to be more appropriate for children across the world. This section can be relatively brief when authors believe that their approach poses few challenges associated with cultural and linguistic differences. When appropriate, the authors also document countries where their approach has been adopted and languages in which their approach has been translated. This searching was facilitated with reference to The  International Guide to Speech Acquisition (McLeod, 2007), a resource documenting speech acquisition, assessment, and intervention practices across 24 languages and

Excerpted from Interventions for Speech Sound

10

Learning Activities Each chapter includes a list of two to three learning activities to help readers apply information about the intervention approach, such as identify intervention targets given a brief description of a child’s sound system, develop a list of intervention exemplars, or develop a lesson plan. When this text is being read as part of a course, professors may choose to use these learning activities to facilitate class discussion or to structure in-class

writing assignments.

Future Directions This section provides authors with the opportunity to draw on their current research and clinical experiences with their approach and point the way toward further, productive development of that approach. Readers can use this section to confirm their impressions about current gaps in the research evidence and the theoretical underpinnings of a given approach. Furthermore, readers can consider how they themselves might address those gaps—through data collection designed to provide local evidence that the intervention is useful to a specific client or group of clients, if they decide to adopt the intervention despite its limitations, or through their own research efforts, if they are interested in and able to

conduct more formal research.

Summary Each chapter ends with a summary of the main takeaway points of the intervention approach. This will help readers determine if they understood the key points or possibly

for different reasons and with different goals in mind. As noted earlier in this chapter, we anticipate four primary categories of readers who may be especially interested in this book:

the intervention.

Suggested Readings Because book chapters are necessarily limited in space and some of the interventions are quite complex, we include this section so that authors can direct readers to additional readings. Whereas many of these readings will provide further information about intervention procedures, stimuli, and materials, others represent the primary scholarly sources in which important studies were first reported. Readers who become particularly intrigued by a given approach should consider these sources as their next logical step in learning about

• Students of speech-language pathology (speech and language therapy)

• Academics and clinical educators who teach students about SSD in children

• Parents of children with SSD Because each audience will probably approach the book from different needs and perspectives, Table  1.5 lists suggested strategies, as well as specific chapters and sections within

Excerpted from Interventions for Speech Sound Disorders

Table 1.5. Suggested sections for specific audiences

Excerpted from Interventions for Speech edited Sound

12

A STRUCTURAL FRAMEWORK FOR INTERVENTION Intervention approaches are implemented within a framework that encompasses a number of components that comprise an intervention package, so to speak. To better understand the individual components of the package, it is helpful to separate the parts to determine how they fit within a structural framework of intervention. One framework that has been described and commonly referenced is a model with roots in Fey (1986) and outlined in McCauley and Fey (2006). This framework provides a broad-based structure for conceptualizing intervention and therefore is not tied to a specific theoretical perspective or intervention approach. We present it here in Figure  1.1 as a structural framework for readers to understand the various components of the intervention package as well as to provide a

to understand the various components of the intervention package as well as to provide a scheme for comparisons across the 20 intervention approaches presented in this book. As shown in Figure 1.1, this model includes the following components: 1) goals (hierarchy of specificity that advances from broad to specific goals in terms of basic, intermediate, specific, and subgoals), 2) intervention context (clinic, classroom, or home), 3) intervention agent (clinician, teacher, or parent), 4) dosage of intervention (frequency and intensity of sessions), 5) procedures (the various intervention components that comprise a specific intervention approach), 6) goal attack strategies (plan for addressing multiple goals),

Evaluation (Assessment-Data Collection-Progress Monitoring) Figure  1.1. Structure of intervention focused on speech sound disorders. (Source: McCauley & Fey, 2006.) a Components (Goals-Goal Attack Strategy-Procedures-Activities-Materials). bIncluding interrelated goals of language

Introduction and 8) evaluation (data collection procedures and methods for progress monitoring and decision-aking relevant to alteration of goals, methods, stimuli, activities, and so forth). m This figure links each intervention component represented in the diagram to the chapter section that addresses those components. This will facilitate readers’ connection of the intervention components to the chapter template sections for each intervention approach

as well as allow comparisons to be easily made between and among the approaches.

FOUNDATIONAL CORE KNOWLEDGE Working effectively with children who have SSD requires strong foundational, or core, knowledge. Baker and Williams note in Chapter 2 that intervention approaches for children with SSD are complex and dynamic. Interventions are interactional, and SLPs need to make a number of decisions quickly in order to provide nuanced intervention tailoring that is still within acceptable fidelity in implementing an intervention. This requires foundational knowledge in typical acquisition as well as phonetic transcription. Finally, information on the prevalence of SSD is important to use to advocate for this population and for justifying expenditure of resources for materials and funding for professional development. Each of these topics is

briefly addressed in the following sections with a list of resources that readers can access.

Speech Acquisition

• Prelinguistic (birth–12 months)

Typical speech acquisition is often described in terms of four periods of development:

• Phonemic development (18 months–4 years)

sponds with the first-words period; the developing level corresponds with the phonemicdevelopment period; and the elaborating level aligns with the stabilization period. Children’s speech acquisition requires development of many interrelated skills in order to conduct successful mutually intelligible conversations in the relevant languages. Some of these skills that need to be refined include the perception, storage, and production of speech (consonants, vowels, tones, prosody, phonotactics) with the appropriate motor coordination for the oral (lips, teeth, tongue, palate), aural (ear), laryngeal, pharyngeal, neurological, and respiratory structures. To this end, extensive research has been undertaken to describe children’s acquisition of skills enabling oromotor function, perception, intelligibility, phonetic inventory, syllable and word shape inventory, mastery of consonants and vowels, percentage of consonants/vowels/phonemes correct, common mismatches, phonological processes (patterns), syllable structure, prosody, and metalinguistic and phonological awareness skills (for an extensive international review, see McLeod and Baker, 2017, Chapter  6). Additionally, McLeod (2009, 2012) developed a freely downloadable year-y-b year handout titled “A summary of English studies of speech acquisition,”

• Stabilization (4–8 years) A brief description of each of these periods is summarized in Table  1.6. These developmental periods are important to consider with regard to the developmental levels of the intervention approaches included in this book (see “Developmental level” column in the chapter appendix available online). Specifically, the emerging developmental level corresponds with the first-words period; the developing level corresponds with the phonemic-

14 Williams, McLeod, and McCauley Table 1.6. Periods of typical speech acquisition (Stark, 1980; Stoel-Gammon & Dunn, 1985; McLeod & Crowe,

intelligible and most consonants are produced correctly. Phonological awareness and literacy skills increase.

the general order of acquisition; however, children with SSD have fewer consonants in the early category and more consonants in the late category. Important factors must be considered when using developmental norms, including the consonant acquisition norms described previously (cf. Farquharson & Tambyraja, 2019; Storkel, 2019). Among the numerous studies of speech sound acquisition, there are differ-

of consonants correct (PCC); phonological processes; diadochokinetic rate; maximum phonation time; phonological awareness; and prosody (https://www.csu.edu.au/research

phonation time; phonological awareness; and prosody (https://www.csu.edu.au/research /multilingual-speech/speech-acquisition). One key area that has received extensive consideration is the mastery of consonants. McLeod and Crowe (2018) analyzed developmental norms from 64 studies across 27 languages for more than 26,000 children from 31 countries and found that most children around the world can produce most consonants in their first language correctly by 5 years of age (90% criterion) (see Table 1.7). Next, Crowe and McLeod (2020) analyzed developmental norms from 15 studies of English consonant acquisition for more than 18,000 children in the United States. Again, they found that most children in the United States can produce most consonants correctly by 5 years of age (90% criterion). The results of both studies were remarkably similar (Table  1.7). These authors have produced speech sound acquisition posters for English, which can be downloaded for free from https://www.csu.edu.au /research/multilingual-speech/speech-a cquisition. Similarly, Shriberg (1993), by analyzing speech data from 63 children with SSD, suggested a developmental sequence of consonant acquisition known as the early 8, middle 8, and late 8 (Table  1.7). Data from the aforementioned studies of typically developing children have many similarities in terms of the general order of acquisition; however, children with SSD have fewer consonants in the

Introduction Table 1.7 Comparison of the age of acquisition (90% criterion) for consonants across three studies of English-

/\mathsf{b},\mathsf{n},\mathsf{m},\mathsf{p},\mathsf{h},\mathsf{w},\mathsf{d}

\ \ //{\sf,m,d,n,h,k,g,w,n,f,i}}

/9,,\mathsf k,\mathsf f,,t,,\mathsf j/

/v,\deg{},\deg,\ \ ,\ ,,\deg,\qquad

/1,\tilde{\triangle},31

/9/

5;0–5;11 /ɹ, , ð/ /ɹ, ð, / Late 8: /ʃ, θ, s, z, ð, l, ɹ, / 6;0–6;11 /θ/ /θ/ *This is a subset of the complete sample of 64 studies of children from 31 countries speaking 27 languages.

related to methodological differences across studies in which even a small difference, such as imitative versus spontaneous naming, can result in large differences in reported age of acquisition. Further, differences in criterion levels also lead to differences in reported ages of acquisition. For example, use of 50% (customary production) versus 90% (mastery) criteria results in different decision making. Given these differences, there is no agreed-upon set of norms that has been adopted as the gold standard by all SLPs. The important point to consider is that speech acquisition does not occur at a single age or a definitive cut-off point

and requires a development of a range of skills.

Phonetic Transcription Phonetic transcription is a basic clinical skill and an essential component of a speech sound assessment. Ramsdell and Stuart (2012) conducted a survey of more than 2,600 U.S. SLPs and reported that while they believe transcription is important to their clinical practice, the majority of SLPs rarely transcribe. A similar survey of U.S. SLPs by Munson, Johnson, and Edwards (2012) reported that only 52% regularly transcribe. This percentage is somewhat lower than that of speech and language therapists surveyed in the United Kingdom, where the authors found that 61% regularly transcribe speech (Knight, Bandali, Woodhead, & Vansadia, 2018). Furthermore, a study of 175 SLPs revealed limited knowledge of the place of tongue/palate contact for English consonants (McLeod, 2011). SLPs were most accurate for /p, f, h/ (where there is no tongue/palate contact) and the velar consonants /k, , ŋ/, but most did not demonstrate knowledge about lateral bracing (tongue contact along the lateral margins of the teeth) for alveolar consonants such as /t, d, s, z, n/ or the groove (so that air can move through the midline) for consonants such as /s, z, ʃ, /

16 Williams, McLeod, and McCauley Phonetic transcription is a tool skill—and as the saying goes, “If you don’t use it, you lose it.” This section provides a broad review with some suggested resources to refresh and sharpen

This section provides a broad review with some suggested resources to refresh and sharpen your transcription skills. Phonetic Transcription for Disordered Speech Basic phonetic transcription uses the symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) chart (see the final pages of this book following the index). The IPA symbols can be used to provide broad transcription of consonants and vowels that are part of the standard phonetic repertoire of the adult sound system in any language (including English). It is not uncommon, however, for English-speaking children with SSD to produce sounds that are outside the typical English phonetic inventory. SLPs therefore must be familiar with the full IPA. Powell (2001) summarized several non-English IPA symbols that are often used in transcribing disordered speech. These include bilabial fricatives ([φ, β]), velar fricatives ([x, γ]), lateral fricatives ([, ]), alveolar affricates ([ts, dz]), and interdental affricates [ t  θ , d ð ]) (see Table  1.8). To elaborate on Table  1.8, Figure  1.2 provides a coronal image of tongue/ palate contact for different productions of /s/: typical, interdental, lateral, and stopped. The  images are a stylized image of a person’s hard palate, with the top of each image indicating the area of the palate immediately behind the top teeth and the bottom of each image indicating the junction between the hard and soft palates. The black boxes indicate where the tongue touches the palate. The boxes represent electrodes used in electropalatography

Klopfenstein, Ball, & Müller, 2010). IPA Extensions The International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association in

IPA Extensions The International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association in 1994 adopted the Extensions to the IPA for the Transcription of Disordered Speech (extIPA) to include a set of specialized symbols for clinical phonetics in order to describe disordered speech (ICPLA Executive Committee, 1994). It was revised in 2015 (Ball, Howard, &

The International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association in 1994 adopted the Extensions to the IPA for the Transcription of Disordered Speech (extIPA) to include a set of specialized symbols for clinical phonetics in order to describe disordered speech (ICPLA Executive Committee, 1994). It was revised in 2015 (Ball, Howard, &

dered speech (ICPLA Executive Committee, 1994). It was revised in 2015 (Ball, Howard, & Miller, 2018). The extIPA chart is included on the final page of this book following the index (https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/sites/default/files/extIPA _2016.pdf ).

(https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/sites/default/files/extIPA _2016.pdf ). As can be seen, it is organized similarly to the IPA chart in terms of place, manner, and voicing. However, it includes symbols for consonants that do not occur in natural languages but may be produced by someone with a speech disorder. The places of production include dentolabial, labioalveolar, linguolabial, and bidental. The manners of production include three types of fricatives (median, lateral + median, and nareal) as well as a percussive manner. Voicing is represented with the voiceless sound listed first in the cognate pairs, as in the IPA

Voicing is represented with the voiceless sound listed first in the cognate pairs, as in the IPA chart. The extIPA also includes 15 diacritic marks to document place modifications, force

Introduction

(^{\dot{\imath}}\ {pm r r^{\prime\prime}})

differences (e.g., whistled articulation), and direction of airflow (ingressive vs. egressive). Lastly, the extIPA includes a system for indicating uncertainty in transcribing a particular aspect of a speaker’s production. The extIPA also allows you to indicate, by circling either

/{\mathsf{p}},{\mathsf{b}},{\mathsf{t}},{\mathsf{d}},

[mathsf\ p{^{h},t^{h},,k^{h}}]

[p, t‹, k‹] Voiced team [b , d , ] Voiceless do

Typical /s/ Interdental /s/ → [θ] Lateral /s/ → [] Stopped /s/ → [t]

Images represent the hard palate. Dark boxes indicate tongue/palate contact. (Used by permission from Sharynne McLeod.) transcribe live, but it is important to also get a quality video-recording of your speech samples because visual cues are helpful for placement, as well as for transcribing some fricatives. If available, find a transcription partner so you can compare transcriptions. This will give you an idea of your transcription reliability as well as feedback to help you improve your transcription skills. A number of transcription and IPA resources are available on the Internet, and many are listed in Table 1.9. This chart, also available on the Brookes website

with the other online resources accompanying this book, includes links to IPA charts to Table 1.9. Resources regarding transcription and the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) Official IPA charts from the International Phonetic Association • https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/content/ipa-chart • https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/sites/default/files/extIPA_2016.pdf Journal of the International Phonetic Association • https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-international-phonetic-association Online IPA keyboards (so you can type in phonetics) • https://ipa.typeit.org/full/ • https://www.blugs.com/IPA/index.html Downloadable IPA fonts (free) for your computer • https://software.sil.org/doulos/ • https://software.sil.org/charis/ Sites that allow you to listen to pronunciation of IPA symbols • https://www.internationalphoneticalphabet.org/ipa-sounds/ipa-chart-with-sounds/ • http://phonetics.ucla.edu/course/chapter1/chapter1.html • https://www.ipachart.com/ • https://enunciate.arts.ubc.ca/linguistics/world-sounds/ • http://web.uvic.ca/ling/resources/ipa/charts/IPAlab/ • http://www.yorku.ca/earmstro/ipa/index.html Sites that allow you to see and listen to pronunciation of IPA symbols • https://www.seeingspeech.ac.uk/ • https://soundsofspeech.uiowa.edu/home/

with the other online resources accompanying this book, includes links to IPA charts to Resources regarding transcription and the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) Official IPA charts from the International Phonetic Association • https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/content/ipa-chart • https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/sites/default/files/extIPA_2016.pdf Journal of the International Phonetic Association • https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-international-phonetic-association Online IPA keyboards (so you can type in phonetics) Downloadable IPA fonts (free) for your computer Sites that allow you to listen to pronunciation of IPA symbols • https://www.internationalphoneticalphabet.org/ipa-sounds/ipa-chart-with-sounds/ • http://phonetics.ucla.edu/course/chapter1/chapter1.html • https://enunciate.arts.ubc.ca/linguistics/world-sounds/ • http://web.uvic.ca/ling/resources/ipa/charts/IPAlab/ • http://www.yorku.ca/earmstro/ipa/index.html Sites that allow you to see and listen to pronunciation of IPA symbols • https://soundsofspeech.uiowa.edu/home/

Transcription self-study programs • http://phonetics.ucla.edu/course/contents.html • http://elearning.marjon.ac.uk/ptsp/ • https://libguides.northwestern.edu/phonetics/ • http://billcprice.com/futureimperfect/2013/06/three-types-of-web-resources-for-teaching-phonetics/

Introduction the International Phonetic Association, to the Journal of the International Phonetic Association, and to sites that allow you to type, see, and listen to the pronunciation of the IPA symbols. If you are working with a child who has a cleft palate, additional resources will be

valuable (e.g., Harding & Grunwell, 1998; Howard, 2011). Prevalence of SSD in Children Children, especially between the ages of 3 and 6 years, with SSD comprise a significant portion of the caseloads of SLPs. A 2012 survey from the National Center for Health Statistics (Black, Vahratian, & Hoffman, 2015) estimated that among children with a communication disorder, 48% of 3- to 10-year-old children had an SSD only, a proportion that dropped to 24% of 11- to 17-year-old children. Residual or persistent speech errors are estimated to occur in 3.8% of 8-year-old children (Wren, Miller, Peters, Emond, & Roulstone, 2016) and 1% to 2% of older children and adults (Flipsen, 2015). Adding to the complexity of SSD is that 11% to 40% of children with SSD have co-occurring language impairment (Eadie et  al., 2015; Shriberg, Tomblin, & McSweeny, 1999). SSD in kindergarten children have been associated with lower literacy outcomes (Overby, Trainin, Smit, Bernthal, & Nelson, 2012) and poorer overall academic performance with long term consequences for their educational experiences and employment outcomes (McCormack, McLeod, McAllister, & Harrison, 2009; McLeod, Harrison & Wang, 2019). Consequently,

SUGGESTED READINGS ASHA (2020). ASHA practice portal: Speech sound disorders (Articulation and phonology). Retrieved from https://www.asha.org/Practice-Portal/Clinical-Topics/Articulation-and-Phonology Ball, M. J., Müller, N., Rutter, B., & Klopfenstein, M. (2009). My client’s using non-English sounds! A tutorial in advanced phonetic transcription. Part  1: Consonants. Contemporary Issues in Communication Sciences and Disorders, 36, 133–141. McLeod, S., & Baker, E. (2017). Children’s speech: An evidence-based approach to assessment and intervention. Boston, MA: Pearson Education. McLeod, S., & Crowe, K. (2018). Children’s consonant acquisition in 27 languages: A cross-linguistic r eview. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 27(4), 1546–1571. Powell, T. W. (2001). Phonetic transcription of disordered speech. Topics in Language Disorders, 21(4), 52–72. Stemberger, J. P., & Bernhardt, B. M. (2020). Phonetic transcription for speech-languag e pathology in the

require services.

CONCLUDING COMMENTS We believe this book can have a positive impact on speech-language pathology through the advancement of effective practices for the intervention of SSD with individual children in the present day as well as with children who will be served by future generations of clinical practitioners. By making EBP and interventions for which evidence is being sought accessible to practicing clinicians, we hope to facilitate increased intervention effectiveness, as well as increased efficiency, by significantly decreasing the amount of time these children

20 American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (2007). Scope of practice in speech-language pathology [Scope of Practice]. Available from https://www.asha.org/uploadedFiles/SP2016 -00343.pdf Baker, E., McCauley, R.J., Williams, A.L., & McLeod, S. (2020). Elements in phonological intervention: A comparison of three approaches using the Phonological Intervention Taxonomy. In E. Babatsouli & M. J. Ball (Eds.), On underreported monolingual child phonology (pp.  375-399). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters. Baker, E., & McLeod, S. (2011). Evidence-based practice for children with speech sound disorders: Part 1 narrative review. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 42(2), 102–139. Baker, E., Williams, A. L., McLeod, S., & McCauley, R. (2018). Elements of phonological interventions for children with speech sound disorders: The development of a taxonomy. American Journal of Speech-anguage Pathology, 27 L (3), 906–935. Ball, M., Howard, S., & Miller, K. (2018). Revisions to the extIPA chart. Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 48(2), 155–164. Ball, M. J., Müller, N., Klopfenstein, M., & Rutter, B. (2010). My client is using non-English sounds! A tutorial in advanced phonetic transcription, Part  II: Vowels and diacritics. Contemporary Issues in Communication Sciences and Disorders, 37, 103–110. Ball, M. J., Müller, N., Rutter, B., & Klopfenstein, M. (2009). My client’s using non-English sounds! A tutorial in advanced phonetic transcription. Part  1: Consonants. Contemporary Issues in Communication Sciences and Disorders, 36, 133–141. Bernstein Ratner, N. (2006). Evidence-based practice: An examination of its ramifications for  the practice of speech-language pathology. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 37(4), 257–267. Black, L. I., Vahratian, A., & Hoffman, H. J. (2015). Communication disorders and use of intervention services among children aged 3–17 years: United States, 2012 (NCHS data brief, no 205). Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov /nchs/products/databriefs/db205.htm Blake, H. L., & McLeod, S. (2018). The International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health: Considering individuals from a perspective of health and wellness. Perspectives of the ASHA Special Interest Groups, 3(17), 69 –7 7. Crowe, K., & McLeod, S. (2020, in press). Children’s English consonant acquisition in the United States: A review. American Journal of Speech- Language Pathology.

Williams, McLeod, and McCauley American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. Dollaghan, C. A. (2007). The handbook for evidence- (2007). Scope of practice in speech-language based practice in communication disorders. pathology [Scope of Practice]. Available from Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. https://www.asha.org/uploadedFiles/SP2016 Dudding, C. C., & Pfeiffer, D. L. (2018). Clinical decision-aking in speech-m language pathol- Baker, E., McCauley, R.J., Williams, A.L., & McLeod, ogy graduate students: Quantitative findings. S. (2020). Elements in phonological interven-Teaching and Learning in Communication Scition: A comparison of three approaches using ences and Disorders, 2(1), Article 2. h t t p s : //d oi the Phonological Intervention Taxonomy. In E. .org/10.30707/TLCSD2.1Dudding Babatsouli & M. J. Ball (Eds.), On underreported Eadie, P., Morgan, A., Ukoumunne, O. C., 375-399). Eecen, K. T., Wake, M., & Reilly, S. (2015). Speech sound disorder at 4 years: Prevalence, comor- Baker, E., & McLeod, S. (2011). Evidence-based bidities, and predictors in a community cohort practice for children with speech sound disor-of children. Developmental Medicine & Child ders: Part 1 narrative review. Language, Speech, Neurology, 57(6), 578–584. and Hearing Services in Schools, 42(2), 102–139. Farquharson, K., & Tambyraja, S. R. (2019). Baker, E., Williams, A. L., McLeod, S., & McCauley, Describing how school-based SLPs determine R. (2018). Elements of phonological interventions eligibility for children with speech sound disorfor children with speech sound disorders: The ders. Seminars in Speech and Language, 40(2), development of a taxonomy. American Journal of 105–112. Fey, M. E. (1986). Language intervention with Ball, M., Howard, S., & Miller, K. (2018). Revisions children. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. to the extIPA chart. Journal of the International Finn, P. (2011). Critical thinking: Knowledge and skills for evidence-based practice. Language, Ball, M. J., Müller, N., Klopfenstein, M., & Rutter, B. Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 42(1), English sounds! 69–72. A tutorial in advanced phonetic transcrip-Flipsen, P. (2015). Emergence and prevalence of tion, Part  II: Vowels and diacritics. Contem-persistent and residual speech errors. Seminars porary Issues in Communication Sciences and in Speech Language, 36(4), 217–223. Furlong, L., Serry, T., Erickson, S., & Morris, M. E. Ball, M. J., Müller, N., Rutter, B., & Klopfenstein, M. (2018). Processes and challenges in clinical English sounds! decision-aking for children with speech-m A tutorial in advanced phonetic transcription. sound disorders. International Journal of Lan- Part  1: Consonants. Contemporary Issues in guage and Communication Disorders, 53(6), Communication Sciences and Disorders, 36, 1124–1138. Ginsberg, S. M., Friberg, J. C., & Visconti, C. F. Bernstein Ratner, N. (2006). Evidence-based (2016). Diagnostic reasoning by experienced practice: An examination of its ramifications speech-anguage pathologists and student clini l language pathology. cians. Contemporary Issues in Communication Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Science and Disorders, 43, 87–91. Harding, A., & Grunwell, P. (1998). Active versus Black, L. I., Vahratian, A., & Hoffman, H. J. (2015). passive cleft-type speech characteristics. Inter- Communication disorders and use of interven-national Journal of Language and Communication services among children aged 3–17 years: tion Disorders, 33(3), 329–352. United States, 2012 (NCHS data brief, no 205). Hill, A. E., Davidson, B. J., & Theodoros, D. G. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health (2012). Reflections on clinical learning in nov- Statistics. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov ice speech-language therapy students. International Journal of Language and Communication Blake, H. L., & McLeod, S. (2018). The International Disorders, 47(4), 413–426. Classification of Functioning, Disability and Howard, S. (2011). Phonetic transcription for Health: Considering individuals from a perspec-speech related to cleft palate. In S. Howard & tive of health and wellness. Perspectives of the A. Lohmander (Eds.), Cleft palate speech: Assessment and intervention (pp. 127–144). Hoboken, Crowe, K., & McLeod, S. (2020, in press). Children’s NJ: Wiley. English consonant acquisition in the United ICPLA Executive Committee. (1999). The extIPA States: A review. American Journal of Speech-chart. Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 24(2), 95–98.

Excerpted from Interventions for Speech Sound

Introduction International Expert Panel on Multilingual Children’s Speech. (2012). Multilingual children with speech sound disorders: Position paper. Bathurst, Australia: Charles Sturt University. Retrieved  from http://www.csu.edu.au/research /multilingual-speech/position-paper Joffe, V., & Pring, T. (2008). Children with phonological problems: A survey of clinical practice. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 43(2), 154–164. Knight, R. A., Bandali, C., Woodhead, C., & Vansadia, P. (2018). Clinicians’ views of the training, use and maintenance of phonetic transcription in speech and language therapy. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 53(4), 7 76 –787. Law, J., Boyle, J., Harris, F., Harkness, A., & Nye, C. (2000). Prevalence and natural history of primary speech and language delay: Findings from a systematic review of the literature. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 35(2), 165–188. McCauley, R. J., & Fey, M. (2006). Introduction to the treatment of language disorders in children. In R. J. McCauley & M. E. Fey (Eds.), Treatment of language disorders in children (pp. 1–20). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. McCormack, J., McLeod, S., McAllister, L., & Harrison, L.J. (2009). A systematic review of the association between childhood speech impairment and participation across the lifespan. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 11(2), 155–170. McLeod, S. (2006). A holistic view of a child with unintelligible speech: Insights from the ICF and ICF-CY. International Journal of Speech- Language Pathology, 8(3), 293–315. McLeod, S. (2009). Speech sound acquisition. In J.  E. Bernthal, N. W. Bankson, & P. Flipsen Jr (Eds.), Articulation and phonological disorders: Speech sound disorders in children (6th  ed., pp. 63–120, 385–405). Boston, MA: Pearson Education. McLeod, S. (2011). Speech-language pathologists’ knowledge of tongue/palate contact for consonants. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 25(11–12), 1004–1013. McLeod, S. (2012). A summary of English studies of speech acquisition. Bathurst, NSW, Australia: Charles Sturt University. Retrieved from http:// www.csu.edu.au/research/multilingual-speech /speech-acquisition McLeod, S. (Ed). (2007). The international guide to speech acquisition. Clifton Park, NY: Thomson Delmar Learning. McLeod, S., & Baker, E. (2014). Speech-language pathologists’ practices regarding assessment,

International Expert Panel on Multilingual Chil-analysis, target selection, intervention, and serdren’s Speech. (2012). Multilingual children vice delivery for children with speech-sound with speech sound disorders: Position paper. disorders. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, Bathurst, Australia: Charles Sturt University. 28(7–8), 508–531. Retrieved  from http://www.csu.edu.au/research McLeod, S., & Baker, E. (2017). Children’s speech: An evidence-based approach to assessment and Joffe, V., & Pring, T. (2008). Children with phono-intervention. Boston, MA: Pearson. logical problems: A survey of clinical practice. McLeod, S., & Crowe, K. (2018). Children’s con- International Journal of Language and Commu-sonant acquisition in 27 languages: A  crosslinguistic review. American Journal of Speech- Knight, R. A., Bandali, C., Woodhead, C., & Vansa-Language Pathology, 27(4), 1546–1571. dia, P. (2018). Clinicians’ views of the training, McLeod, S., Harrison, L. J., McAllister, L., & use and maintenance of phonetic transcrip-McCormack, J. (2013). Speech sound disorders tion in speech and language therapy. Interna-in a community study of preschool children. tional Journal of Language and Communication American Journal of Speech-L anguage Pathology, 22(3), 503–522. Law, J., Boyle, J., Harris, F., Harkness, A., & Nye, C. McLeod, S., Harrison, L. J., & Wang, C. (2019). (2000). Prevalence and natural history of pri-A  longitudinal population study of literacy and mary speech and language delay: Findings from numeracy outcomes for children identified with a systematic review of the literature. Interna-speech, language, and communication needs tional Journal of Language and Communication in early childhood. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 47, 507–517. McCauley, R. J., & Fey, M. (2006). Introduction to McLeod, S., & McCormack, J. (2007). Applicathe treatment of language disorders in children. tion of the ICF and ICF-Children and Youth in In R. J. McCauley & M. E. Fey (Eds.), Treatment children with speech impairment. Seminars in of language disorders in children (pp. 1–20). Speech and Language, 28(4), 254 –264. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. Munson, B., Johnson, J. M., & Edwards, J. (2012). McCormack, J., McLeod, S., McAllister, L., & The role of experience in the perception of Harrison, L.J. (2009). A systematic review phonetic detail in children’s speech: A comof the association between childhood speech parison between speech-language pathologists impairment and participation across the lifes-and clinically untrained listeners. American pan. International Journal of Speech-Language Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 21(2), 124–139. McLeod, S. (2006). A holistic view of a child with Overby, M., Trainin, G., Smit, A. B., Bernthal, J. E., & unintelligible speech: Insights from the ICF Nelson, R. (2012). Preliteracy speech sound proand ICF-CY. International Journal of Speech-duction skill and later literacy outcomes: A study using the Templin Archive. Language, Speech, McLeod, S. (2009). Speech sound acquisition. In and Hearing Services in Schools, 43(1), 97–115. J.  E. Bernthal, N. W. Bankson, & P. Flipsen Jr Powell, T. W. (2001). Phonetic transcription of (Eds.), Articulation and phonological disorders: disordered speech. Topics in Language Disorders, Speech sound disorders in children (6th  ed., 21(4), 52–72. pp. 63–120, 385–405). Boston, MA: Pearson Ramsdell, H. L., & Stuart, A. (2012). Phonetic transcription and clinical practice: A survey McLeod, S. (2011). Speech-language patholo-of speech-anguage pathologists. l ICPLA 2012. gists’ knowledge of tongue/palate contact for Presentation at the biennial conference of the consonants. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association: Cork, Ireland. McLeod, S. (2012). A summary of English studies Rutter, B., Klopfenstein, M., Ball, M. J., & Müller, N. of speech acquisition. Bathurst, NSW, Australia: (2010). My client is using non-English sounds! Charles Sturt University. Retrieved from http:// A tutorial in advanced phonetic transcription, www.csu.edu.au/research/multilingual-speech Part III: Prosody and unattested sounds. Contemporary Issues in Communication Sciences McLeod, S. (Ed). (2007). The international guide to and Disorders, 37, 111–122. speech acquisition. Clifton Park, NY: Thomson Sackett, D. L., Rosenberg, W. M. C., Gray, J. A. M., Hayes, R. B., & Richardson, W. S. (1996). McLeod, S., & Baker, E. (2014). Speech-language Evidence-ased medicine: What it is and what it b pathologists’ practices regarding assessment, isn’t. British Medical Journal, 312(7023), 71–72.

22 Shriberg, L. D. (1993). Four new speech and prosody-oice measures for genetics research v and other studies in developmental phonological disorders. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 36(1), 105–140. Shriberg, L. D., Tomblin, J. B., & McSweeny, J. L. (1999). Prevalence of speech delay in 6-year-old children and comorbidity with language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 42(6), 1461–1481. Stark, R. E. (1980). Stages of speech development in the first year of life. In G. H. Yeni-Komshian, J. F. Kavanagh, & C. A. Ferguson (Eds.), Child phonology. Volume 1: Production (pp. 73–92). New York, NY: Academic Press. Stoel-ammon, C., & Dunn, C. (1985). G Normal and disordered phonology in children. Baltimore, MD: University Park Press. Storkel, H. L. (2019). Using developmental norms for speech sounds as a means of determining treatment eligibility in schools. Perspectives of the ASHA Special Interest Groups, 4(1), 67–75. Tate, R. L., Perdices, M., Rosenkoetter, U., Wakim, D., Godbee, K., Togher, L., & McDonald, S. (2013). Revision of a method quality rating scale for single-ase experimental designs and c n-of-1 trials: The 15-item Risk of Bias in N-of-1 Tria ls (RoBiNT) Scale. Neuropsychological Rehabilita-

Williams, McLeod, and McCauley Shriberg, L. D. (1993). Four new speech and Tiffen, J., Corbridge, S. J., & Slimmer, L. (2014). oice measures for genetics research Enhancing clinical decision-making: Developand other studies in developmental phonologi-ment of a contiguous definition and conceptual cal disorders. Journal of Speech and Hearing framework. Journal of Professional Nursing, 30(5), 399–405. Shriberg, L. D., Tomblin, J. B., & McSweeny, J. L. Verhagen, A. P., de Vet, H. C., de Bie, R. A., year-old Kessels, A.G., Boers, M., Bouter, L. M., & children and comorbidity with language impair-Knipschild, P. G. (1998). The Delphi list: A criment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing teria list for quality assessment of randomized clinical trials for conducting systematic reviews Stark, R. E. (1980). Stages of speech development developed by Delphi consensus. Journal of Clini- Komshian, cal Epidemiology, 51(12), 1235–1241. J. F. Kavanagh, & C. A. Ferguson (Eds.), Child World Health Organization. (2001). International phonology. Volume 1: Production (pp. 73–92). classification of functioning, disability and health (ICF). Geneva, Switzerland: Author. Normal and World Health Organization. (2007). International disordered phonology in children. Baltimore, MD: classification of functioning, disability and health—Children and youth version: ICF-CY. Storkel, H. L. (2019). Using developmental norms Geneva: Author. for speech sounds as a means of determining World Health Organization. (2018). International treatment eligibility in schools. Perspectives of classification of diseases for mortality and morthe ASHA Special Interest Groups, 4(1), 67–75. bidity statistics (11th revision). Retrieved from Tate, R. L., Perdices, M., Rosenkoetter, U., https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en Wakim, D., Godbee, K., Togher, L., & McDonald, S. Wren, Y., Miller, L. L., Peters, T. J., Emond, A., & (2013). Revision of a method quality rating scale Roulstone, S. (2016). Prevalence and predicn-of-1 tors of persistent speech sound disorder at eight 1 Tria ls years old: Findings from a population cohort (RoBiNT) Scale. Neuropsychological Rehabilita-study. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing

SPEECH-LANGUAGE PATHOLOGY / SPEECH SOUND DISORDERS

“Represents research-to-practice at its best....Clinicians will be able to utilize this all-inclusive and wide-ranging text to effectively and efficiently implement evidenced-informed intervention approaches for children with speech sound disorders.”

—Brian Goldstein, Ph.D., CCC-SLP, Chief Academic Officer, Executive Dean, College of Rehabilitative Sciences, University of St. Augustine for Health Sciences

“An invaluable addition to courses in speech sound disorders. To find thoughtful, evidence-based reviews of a wide range of approaches to articulation and phonological therapy all in one place greatly enhances the teaching of this important area of clinical practice.”

—Rhea Paul, Ph.D., CCC-SLP, HASHA, Professor and Chair, Department of Communication Disorders, Sacred Heart University

An essential building block of every speech-language pathologist’s (SLP) professional preparation, the second edition of this bestselling textbook is a comprehensive critical analysis of 21 interventions for highly prevalent speech sound disorders (SSD) in children. Bringing together a powerhouse team of international experts, this edition has been revised and enhanced with current research, new interventions, more guidance on selecting interventions, and updated video clips that show the approaches in action. For each intervention, readers will get a clear explanation of its robust evidence base, plus thorough guidance on implementing the approach, monitoring progress, and using the intervention with children from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds. A key graduate-level text and an important professional resource for

A key graduate-level text and an important professional resource for practicing SLPs, early interventionists, and special educators, this book will help readers choose and use the best interventions for children with phonological or motor-based speech disorders.

Evaluate evidence-based intervention approaches:

• Minimal pairs

• Multiple oppositions

• Articulation interventions

• Dynamic Temporal and Tactile Cueing

• Core vocabulary

• Speech motor programming intervention

WHAT’S NEW:

• Integrated phonological awareness intervention

• 18 high-quality video clips that offer a vivid inside look at intervention techniques in action

• and more

• Expanded information on choosing interventions and implementing them with fidelity

• New featured interventions, including Dynamic Temporal and Tactile Cueing, speech motor programming intervention, articulation interventions, and biofeedback approaches

ABOUT THE EDITORS: A. Lynn Williams, Ph.D., is Associate Dean in the College of Clinical and Rehabilitative Health Sciences and a professor in the Department of Audiology and Speech-Language Pathology at East Tennessee State University. Sharynne McLeod, Ph.D., is professor of speech and language acquisition at Charles Sturt University, Australia. Rebecca J. McCauley, Ph.D., is a professor in the Department of Speech and Hearing Sciences at The Ohio State University.

Communication and Language Intervention Series

Communication & Language Intervention Series Series Editors: Marc E. Fey, Ph.D., & Alan G. Kamhi, Ph.D.

This theory-to-practice, transdisciplinary book series addresses the language problems associated with communication disorders and developmental disabilities. Visit www.brookespublishing.com/cli for more on this series.

• New learning activities that help readers apply their understanding of each intervention

ISBN-13: 978-1-68125-358-9 ISBN-10: 1-68125-358-5 90000

www.brookespublishing.com