Uncorrected Proofs Excerpted from Building Comprehension in Adolescents: Powerful Strategies for Improving Reading and Writing in Content Areas

by Linda H. Mason, Ph.D., Robert Reid, Ph.D., & Jessica L. Hagaman, Ph.D.

Steps in Implementing Self-Monitoring

The steps in implementing self-monitoring are well established (Reid & Lienemann, 2006). Note that the time needed for some steps may vary dramatically depending on what type of self-monitoring is used.

• Was I Paying Attention?
  Am I at my desk? Am I listening to the teacher? Am I doing my assignment? Am I asking for help?

Figure 3.1. Example self-monitoring of attention tally sheet

How Is My Spelling?

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Figure 3.2. Example self-monitoring of performance graph

STEP 1: Select a Target Behavior

The first step is to decide what behavior the students will self-monitor. It’s important that the behavior be well specified. For example, “doing your best work” is much too vague; “percent correct on my math work” is much better. For self-monitoring to work, the students must understand exactly what they will self-assess and self-record. Make sure that the behavior is one that the students are already able to perform. Self-monitoring will not create new knowledge or behavior; it will, however, change the frequency, intensity, of duration of behaviors that students are already able to perform. It is also critical that the behavior be under the students’ control.

STEP 2: Collect baseline data

Before starting self-monitoring, it is necessary to collect baseline data on the students’ behavior. This will allow the teacher to assess accurately whether self-monitoring was effective. Collecting baseline data can be very straightforward; for example, if the teacher planned to use SMP to increase the number of math problems students completed on their daily math seat work, collecting baseline data might be as easy as compiling and graphing worksheets over three or four days.

STEP 3: Obtain students’ cooperation

For self-monitoring to be effective, the students must be active and willing participants. Remember that the students will actually perform the self-monitoring. Teachers should meet with the students and talk about the problem frankly by discussing the benefits of improving the behavior, (e.g., staying in your seat means you don’t lose recess; doing all your arithmetic problems means you’ll do better on the test). The discussion should be positive; the teacher should stress, without making exaggerated claims, that self-monitoring has helped many students. In practice, the great majority of students will immediately buy into trying self-monitoring. If any student is unsure, try using a contingency contract. In this case, the student agrees to try self-monitoring for a set period of time and will receive a reinforcer simply for trying it. After you have enlisted cooperation, explain when and where self-monitoring will be used (e.g., during second period math class seat work time).

STEP 4: Teach the self-monitoring procedures

In this stage the students are taught how to self-monitor. Note that although the time needed to teach procedures can vary widely (depending on the type of self-monitoring used) this process is not time-consuming; instruction time is typically well under one hour. There are three critical tasks at this step. First, the teacher needs to define the target behavior for the students. The teacher simply explains to the students exactly what constitutes the target behavior. This typically is quite simple. For example, in SMP this may entail little more than telling the students to count the number of correctly worked math problems. For other types of self-monitoring, defining the target variable may be more complex. In SMA this may mean teaching the students what it means to “pay attention.” Here the teacher and the students can develop a list of specific behaviors that constitute “paying attention” such as looking at the teacher or your work, writing answers, listening to the teacher, or asking a question. Remember that students must understand the target behavior to be able to self-assess whether the behavior has occurred.

If there is any doubt whether the students can accurately discriminate the target behavior, the teacher should model examples and non-examples of the target behavior and assess whether the students can tell which is which. For example, if the target behavior was paying attention, the teacher might leave her seat and walk around the room (non-example) or raise her hand to ask a question (example). This provides reinforcement of the knowledge of the target variable gained in the previous stage and also provides evaluative feedback for the teacher. The last step in this stage is to explain the procedures involved in self-assessing and self-recording the target behavior. First, the teacher models the self-monitoring procedures while verbalizing the steps. The students are then asked to verbalize the steps as the teacher performs them. Following this, the students are asked to both model and verbalize the procedures. The students must be able to perform the self-monitoring procedures effortlessly. Self-monitoring procedures should not be a distraction for the students. If the procedures are difficult for the students to remember or if the students have trouble performing the procedures, they are probably inappropriate for the students. After the students can demonstrate the procedures correctly, the teacher should provide a brief period of guided practice where the teacher and students collaboratively practice the procedures. This provides structured experience for the students and also allows the teacher to assess mastery. Again, in practice this entire procedure can be done very quickly.

STEP 5: Implement self-monitoring

The first time the students are to use the self-monitoring procedures it is a good idea to prompt the students, (e.g., remember to listen for the beep and then mark down whether you were paying attention or not). During the first few sessions, the teacher should monitor the students to ensure that the self-monitoring procedures are used consistently and correctly. This is critical for self-monitoring effectiveness. If any students appear to be having difficulty using the procedures, re-teaching may be needed. Sometimes simply providing students with prompts, such as reminders of what constitutes the target behavior or cues to self-assess or self-record may be all that is required. Be sure to note that if a student consistently has difficulty, self-monitoring may not be appropriate. The teacher should continue to collect data on the target behavior in order to determine the effectiveness of the intervention. With self-monitoring, improvement usually is rapid (in a matter of days) and pronounced. The teacher should also make periodic checks to assess whether improvements are maintaining. In practice, students can maintain increased performance levels for considerable periods of time in the classroom. However, if the students’ performance begins to deteriorate, the teacher should schedule “booster sessions.”

GOAL SETTING

Helping students to set goals can be very useful (Schunk, 2001). First, goals serve to focus effort by providing a target (e.g., I want to get at least a B in math). This, in turn, provides information on how to accomplish the goal, (e.g., I need to practice my math facts). Second, goals provide information on progress. For example, I would monitor my scores on math quizzes to see if I am making progress meeting the goal. Finally, goals can motivate performance (e.g., My average is now above 80%). Progress toward a goal and achieving that goal is highly motivational. Everyone enjoys reaching a goal. Unfortunately, some students do not set goals, or even worse, may set maladaptive goals that can serve to inhibit performance. For example, some students set performance-avoidance goals; they are not concerned with accomplishing tasks, but instead seek to avoid being seen as lacking ability. Note that for goal setting to be effective goals must be valued. If a goal has no value for students, then it is unlikely to improve performance or maintain motivation or effort. Thus teachers may need to point out the benefits of accomplishing a goal (e.g., getting better grades can mean a discount on auto insurance).

Choosing appropriate goals is important. Good goals have three properties (Schunk, 2001):

Specific. A good goal is well defined. Goals that are nebulous (e.g., do your best) are not as effective as those that are well specified (e.g., get a B on the math test).

• Proximal. The best goals are ones that can be reached fairly quickly (e.g., get all my spelling words correct on the test on Friday). Students with academic difficulties need more frequent reinforcement for their efforts. The time taken to accomplish the goal may reduce or eliminate reinforcement or motivation. However, it is possible to use a series of proximal goals to accomplish a long-term goal.
• Moderately difficult. The best goals are those that are moderately difficult. They are neither too easy nor too difficult. Goals that are easily attained do not serve to enhance or maintain effort (Johnson & Graham, 1990).

Because the actual goal or goals selected are so important, it is best for the teacher to help with setting goals to ensure that goals are realistic and attainable. Otherwise students may set goals that are either much too high or much too easy. Teaching goal setting is a straightforward process. First, the teacher and students meet and discuss performance in an area (e.g., spelling test results). Together the teacher and students decide on an appropriate goal, determine a timeline for meeting the goal, and establish how progress toward the goal can be monitored. Teachers should also ensure that students are aware of progress toward their goals. This provides students with self-evaluative feedback that increases motivation. One good way to help students see progress toward goals is to combine goal setting and self-monitoring where students self-record and graph their performance. Graphing provides powerful feedback and in practice is highly motivating to many students. Teachers should emphasize to students that progress toward a goal is the result of their efforts rather than simply luck or external factors. Also, teachers need to establish procedures to help the students attain the goal. For example, the teacher might suggest daily 10-minute practice.